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WILBUR  B.  KETCHAM,  2  COOPER   UNION,  NEW  YORK 


THE  EPISTLES 


OF 


PAUL  THE  APOSTLE 


A  SKETCH  or  THEIB   ORIGIN  AND   CONTENTS. 


GEORGE  G.  FINDLAY,  B.A., 

TUTOR    IN    BIBLICAL    LITERATURE    AND    EXEGESIS,    HEADINGLEY    COLLEGE. 

Author  of  Commentaries  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  Ephesians 

(Expositor's  Bible),  to  the  Colossians  (Pulpit  Commentary),  and 

I.  and  II.  to  the  Thessalonians  (Cambridge  Bible 

for  Schools  and  Colleges). 


NEW  YORK : 

WILBUR    B.    KETCHAM, 

3  COOPER  UNION. 


PREFACE 


Why  another  book  about  St.  Paul?  We 
have  Commentaries,  Lives,  and  Introductions 
to  the  great  Apostle  in  abundance.  This  book 
comes  under  none  of  these  designations ;  and 
it  fills  a  place  that,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows, 
is  unoccupied.  It  seeks  to  weave  the  Epistles 
together  into  an  historical  unity,  to  trace  out 
the  life  that  pervades  them,  alike  in  its  inter- 
nal elements  and  external  movements  and  sur- 
roundings ;  and  to  do  this  in  a  volume  of  small 
compass,  and  free  from  technical  detail  and 
phraseology. 

Bibliographical  references  and  extended  crit- 
ical discussions  are  excluded  by  the  limits  of 
the  work.  Conclusions  must  be  given,  where 
reasons  are  unsupplied,  or  only  hinted;  and 
conjecture  has  often  to  supply  the  lack  of  sure 
knowledge.  The  writer  has  striven  to  assert 
nothing  more  strongly  than  the  evidence  war- 

3 


4  PKEFACE. 

rants.    But  it  is  difficult  to  be  brief,  and  yet 
not  too  positive. 

These  pages  may  claim,  at  any  rate,  to  be 
the  outcome  of  many  years  of  constant  study 
and  teaching  devoted  to  the  subject. 

a.  a.  F. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION  :   CHRONOLOGY. 

PAGE 

Object  of  the  Handbook — Date  of  Paul's  Conversion — 
First  Period  of  Paul's  Public  Ministry — Second — Third 
—Fourth— Fifth  Periods— Chronological  Table 9 


CHAPTER  H. 

FORM  AND   STYLE    OF   PAUL'S  WRITINGS. 

Personal  and  Incidental  Writings — Style  Attractive  but 
Difficult — Order  and  Contents  of  Epistles 35 


CHAPTER  HI. 

TO   THE   THESSALONIANS. 

Date  and  Connection  of  the  Two  Letters — Occasion — 
Character  and  Affinities — Analysis  of  the  Epistles — 
Paraphrases 45 


b  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  rv. 

THE   FOUR   EVANGELICAL   EPISTLES. 

PAGE 

The  Conflict  with  Peter — Paul's  Apostleship  Disputed — 
Practical  Topics — Genuineness  of  these  Epistles 60 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   FIRST   TO    THE    CORINTHIANS. 

Date  and  Occasion — Character  and  Scope — Central  Prin- 
ciple— Analysis  of  the  Epistle — Paraphrases 77 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   SECOND   TO    THE    CORINTHIANS. 

Interval  between  1   and   2   Corinthians — Titus'   Report 
from  Corinth — Characteristics — Analysis — Paraphrases    99 


CHAPTER  VH. 

TO   THE   GALATIANS. 

Place  of  the  Galatian  Epistle — Paul's  Connection  with 
Galatia — Character  of  the  Galatians — Judaizers  in 
Galatia — Analysis — Paraphrases 118 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

TO    THE    ROMANS. 

PAGE 

Occasion  of  Romans — The    Roman  Chui'ch — Threefold 
Conclusion — Analysis — Paraphrases 135 


CHAPTER  IX. 

TRANSITION  TO   THE   THIRD   GROUP. 

Address  at  Miletus — Situation  of  the  Apostle — The  Co- 
lossian  Heresy 160 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  EPISTLES   OF  THE   FIRST   IMPRISONMENT. 

Connection  of  Colossians  and  Ephesians — Ephesians,  cir- 
cular Letter — Analyses — Philemon — Philippians — Par- 
aphrases    177 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  THREE   PASTORALS. 

Object  of  the  Pastorals — Connection  with  Earlier  Epis- 
tles— Authenticity — Order  and  Date — Analyses — Para- 
phrases     202 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  Xn. 

GENERAL    SURVEY. 

PAGE 

Paul  as  an  Evangelist — Growth  of  his  Doctrine — Charac- 
teristics of  Four  Groups 227 


CHAPTER  Xm. 

APPENDIX. — THE   EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBREWS. 

Destination  of  the  Epistle — Its  Date — Aim  and  Charac- 
ter— Author — Analysis 259 


THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTEODUCTION. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  handbook  to  furnish, 
in  a  form  as  brief  and  clear  as  possible,  a  con- 
nected view  of  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul.  We 
shall  look  at  them  in  their  historical  order  and 
continuity,  as  an  expression  of  the  living  mind 
of  the  great  apostle  of  the  G-entiles  and  a  part 
of  his  life-work.  We  shall  seek  to  understand 
their  environment,  the  combination  of  circum- 
stances under  which  they  originated,  and  the 
condition  of  the  young  Christian  communities 
to  which  they  were  addressed.  We  shall  treat 
the  letters  as  an  organic  whole,  viewing  each 
in  its  relation  to  its  companions  and  to  the 
general  teaching  of  the  author,  and  endeavor- 
ing to  trace  out  their  internal  unity  and  per- 
vasive spirit.  We  shall  follow  the  progress 
of  the  writer's  thought,  and  the  application 
of  his  governing  principles  to  the  changing 

9 


10  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

conditions  of  life  around  him,  and  to  the 
growing  necessities  of  the  work  of  God  com- 
mitted to  his  charge.  These  epistles  will 
afford  us,  if  we  succeed  in  our  attempt,  a 
mirror  of  the  apostle  himself  in  his  inner 
history  and  experience,  in  the  varying  moods 
of  his  sensitive  and  ardent  nature,  in  the  ad- 
vance of  his  powerful  intellect  and  the  mighty 
working  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  upon  him;  a 
mirror  also,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  state 
and  development  of  the  infant  churches  of  the 
Gentiles  which  he  had  begotten,  and  nursed 
through  the  early  and  imperilled  stages  of 
their  existence. 

At  the  same  time,  while  keeping  these  wider 
aims  before  us,  the  letters  themselves  will  be 
our  proper  study.  Our  chief  object  will  be 
to  grasp  and  master  each  of  them  in  its  special 
significance  and  character,  as  in  turn  they 
come  under  review.  It  will  be  possible,  as 
we  hope,  without  entering  upon  the  details 
of  exposition,  to  analyze  the  epistles  in  such 
a  way  as  to  bring  out  their  salient  features 
and  distinctive  import,  so  that  we  may  appre- 
ciate each  for  its  own  sake,  and  may  discern 
what  they  severally  contribute  to  Christian 
doctrine  and  to  the  wealth  and  life  of  the 
Church,  as  well  as  to  our  acquaintance  with 
St.  Paul  and  the  apostolic  age.    If  we  accom- 


INTKODUCTION.  11 

plish  less  tlian  we  design,  and  our  ambition 
should  prove  too  large  to  be  compassed  in  so 
small  a  space,  the  reader  must  be  pleased  to 
accept  what  is  here  offered  him  as  an  essay 
towards  the  end  proposed,  and  as  the  open- 
ing up  of  a  path  which  it  will  remain  for  him- 
self to  pursue  to  its  goal.  It  is  something  if 
this  sketch  suffices  to  indicate  to  the  student 
the  method  by  which  the  subject  should  be 
approached,  and  the  ideal  that  he  must  place 
before  himself,  even  though  the  results  imme- 
diately attained  fall  short  of  its  realization. 

The  path  which  we  have  marked  out  is 
indeed  no  new  or  untrodden  way.  We  are 
entering  into  the  labors  of  many  devoted 
Pauline  scholars.  The  life  and  wiitings  of 
this  apostle  have  engaged  of  recent  years  the 
attention  and  research  of  men  of  all  schools 
of  Christian  learning,  to  an  extraordinary 
degree.  The  work  thus  accomplished  is  so 
far  complete,  and  the  material  accumulated 
for  the  elucidation  of  the  subject  so  extensive 
and  well  digested,  that  little  remains  to  be 
done  except  to  gather  up  and  bring  to  a  focus 
the  results  now  ascertained.  It  ought  not, 
therefore,  to  be  very  difficult  for  us,  within 
these  narrow  limits,  to  take  such  a  rapid  but 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  field  as  we  have 
above  indicated. 


12  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

In  the  two  opening  chapters  we  shall  aim 
at  two  things.  (1)  We  shall  di'aw  out  a  chron- 
ological outline  of  the  apostle's  life^  supplying  a 
framework  into  which  to  fit  the  epistles  pro- 
visionally, so  that  each  may  have  its  definite 
place  in  our  mental  image  of  the  times.  For 
in  compositions  of  this  class,  more  than  in 
any  other,  a  preliminary  knowledge  of  the 
occasion  and  date  of  writing  is  indispensable 
for  the  understanding  of  their  contents.*  Fur- 
nishing ourselves  beforehand  with  a  scheme 
of  the  apostle's  history,  gathered  from  a  cur- 
sory view  of  the  epistles  and  comparison  of 
them  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  we  shall 
return  to  the  closer  study  of  the  letters,  pre- 
pared to  trace  the  course  of  events  that  gave 
birth  to  each,  the  links  of  connection  which 
bind  them  together,  and  the  nature  and  extent 
of  their  various  contributions  to  the  teaching 
of  the  New  Testament.  (2)  Furthermore,  and 
as  our  second  preliminary  business,  we  shall 
take  account  of  the  literary  form  and  character- 
istics of  St.  FauVs  letters^  their  i3eculiar  style 
of  expression  and  the  mould  into  which  they 
are  cast. 

*  In  following  Paul's  career,  we  need  also  to  have  the  map 
constantly  before  us.  The  Teacher's  Bible  and  other  editions 
of  the  Scriptures  supply  this  want. 


CHRONOLOGY.  13 


The  Cheonology  of  St.  Paul's  Life. 

The  apostle's  conversion  to  Christianity  is 
variously  dated  by  different  critics,  some  fix- 
ing it  as  early  as  35,  others  as  late  as  41  a.d. 
Its  date  is  determined:  (1)  partly  by  its  con- 
nection with  Stephen^s  martyrdom^  which,  it  is 
supposed,  took  place  about  the  end  of  Pontius 
Pilate's  governorship  (36  a.d.),  when  his  au- 
thority was  so  weak  that  such  a  proceeding 
as  the  judicial  murder  of  Stephen  becomes  ac- 
countable, or  in  the  interregnum  that  preceded 
the  arrival  of  Pilate's  successor  (36-38  a.d.)  ; 
(2)  partly  by  counting  backwards  from  the 
date  of  the  council  at  Jerusalem  (on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  meeting  of  Acts  xv.  1-29 
and  that  of  Gal.  ii.  1-10  are  one  and  the  same) 
the  periods  of  three  and  fourteen  years  *  fur- 
nished by  Gal.  i.  18  and  ii.  1,— and  the  coun- 

*  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  ancient  computations  of 
time  were  inclusive,  the  starting-point  and  the  terminus  of 
the  period  computed  being  both  reckoned  in  counting  the 
distance.  So  that,  e.g.,  any  event  of  the  year  38  would  be 
described  as  "  three  years  after "  any  event  of  the  year  36, 
although  the  former  should  have  occurred  in  October  and  the 
latter  in  September.  (The  Jewish  civil  year  began  in  Octo- 
ber.) At  this  rate,  it  is  evident  that  the  two  successive 
periods  of  three  and  fourteen  years,  stated  by  St.  Paul,  need 
not  have  amounted  to  more  than  an  actual  interval  of  fifteen 
years. 


14  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

cil  appears  on  otlier  grounds  to  have  taken 
place  in  51  a.d.  ;  and  (3)  partly  again  by  ref- 
erence to  2  Cor.  xi.  32,  where  Paul  tells  us 
that  Aretas,  king  of  Petra  in  Arabia,  was 
occupying  Damascus  at  the  time  of  his  escape 
from  that  city,  which  ensued  on  his  return 
thither  (Acts  ix.  23-25)  after  the  three  years' 
sojourn  in  Arabia  (Gral.  i.  17, 18).  Now  Aretas, 
it  is  shown,  cannot  have  occupied  Damascus 
earlier  than  37  a.d.  (when  the  death  of  the 
Emperor  Tiberius  was  attended  with  consid- 
erable unsettlement  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
the  Empire) ;  and  this  Arab  chief  is  not  likely 
to  have  held  that  city  much  later,  nor  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time. 

These  data  taken  singly  seem  precarious; 
but  they  lend  confirmation  to  each  other, 
and  we  infer  from  them  that  the  conversion 
of  Saul  of  Tarsus  to  the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ 
took  place  in  the  year  36  of  our  Lord.  It  may 
have  come  about  a  year  sooner  or  a  year  later ; 
but  the  margin  of  uncertainty  can  hardly  ex- 
tend beyond  this  limit.  It  was,  then,  within 
six,  or  at  the  most  seven,  years  of  Christ's 
ascension  that  this  great  event  happened, 
when  the  ascended  Jesus  led  captive  this 
powerful  and  determined  enemy  of  His  name, 
and  through  him  bestowed  upon  men  gifts 
amongst  the  choicest  and  most  fruitful  with 


CHEONOLOGY.  15 

which  His  Church  has  ever  been  enriched.  In 
Paul's  conversion  the  full  import  of  the  new 
faith  revealed  itself ;  a  world-wide  revolution 
was  effected  in  the  germ. 

Referring  the  conversion  of  Saul  to  the  year 
•  36,  his  first  subsequent  visit  to  Jerusalem  took 
place  in  38  a.d.  (Acts  ix.  26-30;  Gal.  i.  18, 19), 
when  he  "made  acquaintance  with  Cephas, 
and  abode  with  him  fifteen  days,"  and  also 
"  saw  James,  the  Lord's  brother,"  but  did  not 
become  known  to  the  Judaean  church  at  large 
(Gal.  i.  22),  though  he  "disputed"  in  the  Hel- 
lenistic synagogues.  After  this  the  future 
apostle  retired  to  Tarsus,  and  spent  some 
years  engaged  in  evangelistic  work  in  "the 
regions  of  Syria  and  Cilicia,"  near  to  his  na- 
tive place  (Gal.  i.  21-23). 

FmsT  Pekiod  of  Paul's  Public  Ministky. 

He  reappears  in  the  narrative  of  the  Acts, 
when  fetched  by  Barnabas  to  help  him  at 
Antioch  (Acts  xi.  25,  26).  This  must  have 
been  in  43  a.d.;  for  Barnabas  and  Saul  la- 
bored in  Antioch  together  "a  whole  year" 
before  the  prediction  by  Agabus  of  the  fam- 
ine in  Judaea.  This  calamity  occasioned  their 
going  up  to  Jerusalem,  during  the  persecution 
of  the  church  there  by  Herod  Agrippa  I., 
which  was  terminated  by  the  sudden  death 


16  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

of  this  king  (Acts  xii.).  Now,  at  this  point 
in  our  chronology  we  touch  solid  ground; 
for  we  know  from  secular  history  that  Herod 
died  at  Csesarea  in  April  44  a.d.  At  this  peri- 
od Paul  made  his  second  visit  as  a  Christian 
to  Jerusalem,  assisting  Barnabas  in  bringing 
relief  to  the  famine-stricken  brethren  in  Judsea 
(Acts  xi.  27-30,  xii.  25). 

This  was  probably  a  hurried  and  secret 
visit ;  it  was  "  to  the  elders  "  that  the  contri- 
bution from  Antioch  was  officially  sent ;  and 
coming  at  such  a  time,  with  a  contribution  of 
money  for  the  proscribed  Christian  flock,  the 
delegates  would  avoid  public  notice.  It  is 
likely  that  St.  Paul  saw  hardly  any  one  at 
Jerusalem,  except  the  elders;  for  Peter  was 
at  this  time  in  hiding  (Acts  xii.  17),  or  still 
confined  in  prison,  and  the  other  apostles 
probably  absent.  Indeed,  it  is  quite  possible 
that  Paul  did  not  even  set  foot  in  the  city. 
At  any  rate,  he  still  remained  "  unknown  by 
face  to  the  churches  of  Judaea"  (G-al.  i.  22). 
This  errand  had  no  bearing  on  St.  Paul's 
relations  to  the  elder  apostles,  and  was  irrel- 
evant to  his  purpose  in  Gal.  i.  and  ii.  Hence 
he  passes  it  over  without  mention  in  that 
epistle.  He  refers  there  to  two  important 
visits  to  the  Holy  City,  which  brought  him 
into  close  relations  with  St.  Peter  and  the 


CHKONOLOGY.  17 

leaders  of  tlie  mother  church — the  first  tak- 
ing place  in  the  third  year  after  his  conver- 
sion, which  we  have  noticed  in  its  place ;  and 
a  second,  following  the  first  "  at  an  interval 
of  fourteen  years,"  when  the  status  of  G-en- 
tile  Christians  and  of  St.  Paul  as  their  apostle 
was  under  discussion  (Gral.  ii.  1-10).  Now, 
the  mission  of  charity  referred  to  in  Acts  xi. 
29,  30  fell  in  the  middle  of  this  period  of  four- 
teen years, — about  44  a.d. 

"  Barnabas  and  Saul,  when  they  had  com- 
pleted this  service,  returned  from  Jerusalem, 
taking  along  with  them  John  Mark"  (Acts 
xii.  25),  who  was  "  Barnabas'  cousin  "  (Col.  iv. 
10,  R.y.).  For  some  time  longer  they  con- 
tinued their  labors  in  Antioch  and  the  neigh- 
borhood, St.  Paul's  work  extending  beyond 
Syria  to  his  native  district  of  Cilicia  (Gal.  i. 
21).  At  length  came  the  call  of  the  Spirit 
which  drove  the  Gentile  missionaries  farther 
afield,  and  gave  the  signal  for  the  com- 
mencement of  Paul's  wider  career  (Acts  xiii. 
1_4).  The  first  missionary  journey  of  Barna- 
bas and  Paul  together  took  them  from  Anti- 
och through  the  island  of  Cyprus  and  the 
southeast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  back  by  sea 
to  Antioch  again  (Acts  xiii.,  xiv.).  This  ex- 
tensive tour  must  have  occupied  the  greater 
part  of  a  year,  from  early  spring  to  autumn 


18  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

— tlie  period  during  which  navigation,  and 
travel  in  the  highlands  of  Asia  Minor,  were 
possible.  But  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
to  which  of  the  years  between  44  and  51  a.d. 
it  belonged.  The  language  of  St.  Luke  would 
lead  us  to  date  the  expedition  at  an  earlier 
rather  than  a  later  position  in  this  interval; 
if  we  assign  it  to  46  a.d.,  we  are  sufficiently 
near  the  truth.  The  historian  tells  us  that 
"no  small  time"  elapsed  between  the  return 
of  the  missionaries  from  this  voyage  and  their 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  on  the  question  of  Gen- 
tile circumcision  (Acts  xiv.  28). 

For  some  years  longer,  therefore,  the  apos- 
tle Paul  remained  by  the  side  of  Barnabas, 
laying  securely  the  foundations  of  Gentile 
Christianity  in  the  Grseco- Syrian  city  of  An- 
tioch,  vfhich  was  the  metropolis  of  the  East, 
and  at  this  time  inferior  in  its  magnitude  and 
wealth  only  to  Rome  and  Alexandria.  If  St. 
Paul  spent  eighteen  months  of  his  brief  apos- 
tleship  continuously  at  Corinth,  and  above 
two  years  at  Ephesus,  it  was  not  too  much 
to  devote  the  first  seven  years  of  his  public 
ministry  to  Antioch.  Here  "the  disciples 
were  first  called  Christians"  (Acts  xi.  26); 
and  Antioch,  rather  than  Jerusalem,  is  the 
mother  city  of  Christian  missions  and  of  the 
Church  oecumenical.    It  was  the  headquarters 


CHRONOLOGY.  19 

and  starting-point  of  St.  PauPs  whole  Gentile 
evangelism.  While  remaining  at  Antioch,  the 
apostle  probably  undertook  other  minor  ex- 
peditions in  the  neighboring  regions,  resem- 
bling that  described  in  Acts  xiii.,  xiv.,  but 
which  it  was  not  necessary  for  St.  Luke  to 
record. 

To  the  time  of  the  first  recorded  missionary 
journey  belong  the  addresses  reported  in  Acts 
xiii.  and  xiv.,  delivered  at  the  Pisidian  An- 
•tioch  and  at  Lystra  in  Lycaonia,  which  are 
of  great  value  as  examples  of  Paul's  mission- 
ary preaching. 

The  so-called  "  Council  of  Jerusalem"  (Acts 
XV. ;  G-al.  ii.)  is  the  next  critical  event  in  the 
apostle's  hfe  and  in  the  annals  of  the  primi- 
tive Church.  It  took  place  in  the  year  51  (or, 
possibly,  50)  a.d.,  at  a  point  of  time  half-way 
between  the  ascension  of  Christ  and  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem.  This  conference  between  Bar- 
nabas and  Paul,  as  delegates  of  the  church  at 
Antioch,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  church  at  Jeru- 
salem resulted  in  the  formal  recognition  of 
Gentile  Christianity  in  its  distinctive  char- 
acter and  independence  of  the  Mosaic  law. 
An  understanding  was  brought  about,  under 
the  auspices  of  "James,  Cephas,  and  John," 
between  the  conservative  Judeean  school  and 
those  who  shared  in  the  more  advanced  and 


20  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

enliglitened  views  of  the  apostle  of  the  Gen- 
tiles ;  while  the  latter,  in  spite  of  the  preju- 
dices that  had  been  excited  against  him,  was 
acknowledged  in  his  plenary  apostleship  by 
the  three  "  pillars  "  at  Jerusalem  and  admitted 
to  a  footing  of  equality  with  themselves. 
Thus  his  position  and  that  of  the  new,  free 
Gentile  communities  was  made  secure,  and  a 
platform  was  laid  for  the  widest  possible  ex- 
tension of  the  gospel  throughout  the  heathen 
world. 

Second  Pekiod  of  Paul's  Ministky. 

From  this  point,  therefore,  St.  Paul's  plans 
took  a  wider  range  and  his  gospel  had  free 
course.  He  set  out  on  the  second  missionary 
journey  independently  of  Barnabas,  but  ac- 
companied by  Silas  (or  "  Silvanus,"  as  in 
1  and  2  Thess.  i.  1 ;  1  Pet.  v.  12)  of  Jerusalem 
(Acts  XV.  36-41);  Timothy  joining  them  at 
Lystra  on  the  way  (Acts  xvi.  1-3),  and  Luke 
apparently  attending  them  at  a  later  period 
of  the  journey,  from  Troas  to  Philippi  (Acts 
xvi.  10-17,  for  it  is  in  this  part  of  the  journey 
that  th^  writer  of  the  Acts  speaks  in  the  first 
person  plural).  The  primary  object  of  this 
tour  was  to  confirm  the  churches  already 
founded  in  southeastern  Asia  Minor,  and  to 
deliver  to  them  the  letter  of  the  council  at 


CHRONOLOGY.  21 

Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  36,  41,  xvi.  4,  5).  But 
when  the  missionary  band  had  reached  the 
Kmit  of  the  former  excursion,  instead  of  re- 
turning home  they  boldly  marched  forward 
through  the  heart  of  the  peninsula.  Leaving 
Lycaonia  to  the  south,  they  traversed  Phrygia 
and  Galatia  (Acts  xvi.  6),  in  a  direction  appar- 
ently from  southwest  to  northeast.  In  Grala- 
tia  the  apostle's  health  broke  down,  and  he 
was  compelled  to  halt.  Here,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, he  spent  the  winter;  he  was  received 
with  the  kindest  hospitality,  and  preached 
with  great  success  (Gal.  iv.  12-15,  iii.  1-5). 
Leaving  Gralatia,  Paul  and  Silas  struck  out 
westward,  intending  to  attack  the  important 
Eoman  province  of  Asia,  with  its  famous 
capital,  Ephesus.  But  they  were  "  forbidden 
by  the  Holy  Spirit";  and  a  similar  intima- 
tion stopped  them  on  their  way  to  the  popu- 
lous province  of  Bithynia,  lying  to  the  north- 
east (Acts  xvi.  6,  7). 

So  it  came  to  pass  that  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  52  the  travellers  found  themselves  in 
Troas,  fronting  Europe  and  the  western  seas, 
where  the  cry  from  Macedonia  reached  their 
ears.  At  its  summons  they  crossed  the 
^gean,  to  take  possession  in  the  name  of 
Christ  of  a  new  continent,  the  home  of  the 
world's  imperial  races,  the  nurse  of  civiliza- 


22  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

tion  and  the  arts  of  life.  The  graphic  narra- 
tive of  St.  Luke,  in  Acts  xvi.  11  to  xviii.  18, 
enables  us  to  follow  closely  the  track  of  the 
missionaries,  and  to  witness  their  adventures 
and  successes  from  Troas  all  the  way  to 
Corinth.  Here  St.  Paul  "  sat  down  for  eight- 
een  months,"  and  "stayed  yet  many  days 
further"  (Acts  xviii.  11,  18 — probably  from 
autumn  52  to  summer  54) ;  and  this  city,  the 
political  and  commercial  capital  of  Greece, 
became,  after  Antioch,  the  second  great  cen- 
tre of  the  Gentile  Christian  mission.  The 
arrival  of  Aquila  and  his  wife  at  Corinth,  in 
consequence  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews 
from  Rome  by  the  Emperor  Claudius  (Acts 
xviii.  2),  and  the  governorship  of  Gallio  in 
the  province  of  Achaia  at  this  point  bring 
the  sacred  narrative  into  contact  with  secular 
history.  These  coincidences,  while  not  sup- 
plying very  definite  marks  of  time,  yet,  so 
far  as  they  go,  sustain  the  correctness  of  our 
chronology. 

The  churches  of  Galatia,  Macedonia,  and 
Corinth  were  the  product  of  St.  Paul's  second 
missionary  journey.  And  to  this  period  be- 
long the  firstfruits  of  the  apostle's  literary 
labors — the  two  epistles  to  the  Thessalonians. 
Add  to  these  the  address  on  Mars'  Hill  (Acts 
xvii.  18-31). 


chronology.  23 

Thied  Peeiod  of  Paul's  Ministry. 

A  brief  and  unimportant  fourth  visit  to  Je- 
rusalem is  indicated  in  Acts  xviii.  22,  23 ;  after 
which  the  apostle  "went  down  to  Antioch." 
He  "  spent  some  time  "  in  that  city — probably 
the  winter  of  54-55  a.d.  ;  and  it  was,  we  be- 
lieve, at  this  time,  in  the  interval  between  the 
second  and  third  missionary  journeys,  that 
the  conflict  took  place  at  Antioch  between 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  which  the  latter  apostle 
describes  in  Gal.  ii.  11-21.  Our  reasons  for 
this  opinion  will  afterwards  appear. 

St.  Paul  started  from  Antioch,  on  his  tliird 
missionary  journey^  in  the  spring  of  55  a.d. 
He  journeyed  overland,  "  traversing  the  Grala- 
tian  country  and  Phrygia,  strengthening  all 
the  disciples,"  and  therefore,  we  may  presume, 
visiting  the  Lycaonian  churches  also  on  his 
way  (Acts  xviii.  23).  He  was  able  now  to 
carry  out  the  purpose — postponed  three  years 
before  by  the  Divine  monition,  which  then 
directed  his  course  to  Europe — of  coming 
down  by  way  of  the  Phrygian  highlands  to 
Ephesus.  Here  he  arrived  (Acts  xix.  1)  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  year  55.  And  he  re- 
mained in  or  about  Ephesus  for  some  two 
years  and  a  half  (compare  the  notes  of  time 
given  us  in  Acts  xix.  8,  10  and  xx.  31),  in 
which   time  a  large  and  flourishing  chiu'ch 


24  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

was  established  in  this  great  capital,  and 
"almost  the  whole  of  Asia  heard  the  woi'd 
of  the  Lord,  both  Jews  and  Greeks"  (Acts 
xix.  10).  The  churches  of  the  Lycus  valley 
— Colossse,  Laodicea,  and  Hierapolis — where 
Paul  himself  had  not  been  (Col.  i.  5-7,  ii.  1), 
were  proofs  of  the  far-reaching  influence  of 
the  apostle's  Ephesian  ministry,  and  of  the 
abundant  harvest  which  his  labors  yielded  in 
this  well-chosen  soil. 

The  tumult  in  the  theatre  at  Ephesus  some- 
what hastened  St.  Paul's  departure.  He  left 
Asia  in  the  spring  of  58,  travelling,  as  before, 
by  way  of  Troas  to  Macedonia  (Acts  xx.  1; 
2  Cor.  ii.  12).  Here  he  must  have  stayed  a 
considerable  time  (Acts  xx.  2;  2  Cor.  i.  23), 
longer  than  at  first  he  intended.  It  was  prob- 
ably during  this  summer  that  St.  Paul  com- 
pleted the  evangelization  of  Macedonia,  and 
made  the  excursion  into  Illyricum  referred 
to  in  Eom.  xv.  19.  The  autumn  of  58  found 
him  in  Corinth  again,  to  which  he  devoted 
the  three  months  of  winter  (Acts  xx.  3). 
Early  in  the  year  59  Paul  set  out,  by  way  of 
Macedonia,  on  the  memorable  voyage  to  Jeru- 
salem which  concluded  the  third  and  culmi- 
nating period  of  his  Gentile  mission.  By 
Easter  he  was  already  at  Philippi  (Acts  xx.  6), 
where  Luke  rejoined  him ;  for  he  now  resumes 


CHRONOLOGY.  25 

the  "  we  "  dropped  at  Philippi  six  years  before 
(Acts  xvi.  17). 

To  this  epoch  (55-59  a.d.)  belong  the  found- 
ing of  the  churches  of  Asia  {i.e.,  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia,  corresponding  to  western 
Asia  Minor  in  modern  geography),  with  Eph- 
esus  for  their  metropolis;  and  the  writing 
of  the  Galatian,  the  two  Corinthian,  and  the 
Eoman  epistles — the  greatest  products  of  the 
apostle's  pen,  and  documents  whose  author- 
ship is  beyond  all  dispute.  To  the  year  59 
and  the  time  of  the  journey  to  Jerusalem 
belongs  the  pastoral  address  to  the  Ephesian 
elders  recorded  in  Acts  xx.  This  forms  the 
transition  to  the  following  period. 

FouETH  Period  of  Paul's  Ministry. 

It  was  Pentecost,  59  a.d.,  when  the  apostle 
paid  his  fifth  visit  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  16, 
xxi.  17),  bringing  with  him  the  contributions 
that  the  Gentile  churches  had  made  for  the 
relief  of  their  poorer  brethren  in  Judaea  (Acts 
xxiv.  17;  Rom.  xv.  25-27,  31,  etc.).  "The 
Jews  from  Asia"  present  at  the  feast  (Acts 
xxi.  27-30),  his  old  Ephesian  enemies,  recog- 
nized him  in  the  Temple,  and  made  a  mur- 
derous assault  upon  him,  setting  the  whole 
city  in  an  uproar.  He  was  with  difiiculty 
rescued  by  Captain  Claudius  Lysias  and  the 


26  THE   EPISTLES   OE  PAUL. 

Eoman  guard ;  was  tried  before  the  Sanliedrin 
without  result,  and  then  despatched  for  safety 
to  Csesarea,  the  residence  of  the  Procurator; 
tried  again  ineffectually  before  Felix,  and  de- 
tained for  two  years,  until  the  expiry  of  Felix's 
governorship  and  the  arrival  of  his  successor, 
Festus  (61  A.D.).  Failing  to  obtain  Justice  from 
the  new  Procurator,  he  "  appealed  to  CsBsar " 
in  the  exercise  of  his  right  as  a  Roman  citi- 
zen, and  thus  secured  the  fulfilment  of  his 
long-cherished  hope  of  seeing  Rome  (Acts 
xix.  21;  Rom.  xv.  23).  Our  calculations, 
drawn  from  St.  Luke's  data,  are  verified  at 
this  point  by  certain  statements  of  Josephus, 
from  which  we  gather  that  Festus  succeeded 
Felix  as  Procurator  of  Judaea  in  the  summer 
of  60  or  61  A.D., — probably  the  latter. 

St.  Paul's  speeches  of  defence  are  impor- 
tant documents  for  this  fourth  period  of  his 
apostleship:  (1)  before  the  people,  delivered 
from  the  Temple  steps.  Acts  xxii. ;  (2)  before 
the  Jewish  Sanliedrin,  Acts  xxiii. ;  (3)  before 
the  Procurator  Felix,  Acts  xxiv. ;  (4)  his  ap- 
peal to  Ca3sar  at  the  court  of  Festus,  Acts 
XXV.;  (5)  his  apology  before  Herod  Agrippa 
II.,  in  the  presence  of  Festus,  Acts  xxvi. 

The  voyage  to  Rome,  narrated  in  the  last 
chapters  of  the  Acts,  occupied  the  autumn 
and  winter  of  61-62  a.d.      There  the  histo- 


CHRONOLOGY.  27 

rian  leaves  him,  after  "  two  whole  years  "  still 
awaiting  trial.  Meanwhile,  he  was  allowed 
to  "  live  in  his  own  hired  house,  receiving  all 
that  came  to  him ;  preaching  the  kingdom  of 
God,  and  teaching  the  things  concerning  the 
Lord  Jesns  Christ  with  all  boldness,  no  man 
forbidding  him."  So  the  story  ends.  What- 
ever be  the  real  explanation  of  this  abrupt, 
yet  seemingly  designed  conclusion,  it  is  scarce- 
ly consistent  with  the  supposition  that  the 
imprisonment  terminated  with  the  apostle's 
death.  There  was  nothing  in  the  nature  of  the 
charges  against  him,  nor  in  the  policy  of  the 
Roman  Government,  likely  to  lead  to  such  an 
issue ;  unless,  indeed,  the  Emperor  had  some 
personal  ground  for  hostility  against  the  Chris- 
tians. Such  hostility  did  exist,  as  we  know, 
in  the  closing  years  of  Nero's  reign,  after  the 
great  fire  at  Eome  in  64  a.d.  And  tradition 
points  to  this  later  period  as  the  time  of  the 
apostle's  martyrdom.  Moreover,  the  epistles 
to  Philemon  and  to  the  Philippians — the 
former  probably,  and  the  latter  certainly, 
written  from  Rome  after  Paul  had  been  in 
confinement  there  for  a  considerable  time — 
express  a  decided  expectation  of  release  (Phil, 
ii.  23,  24;  Philem.  22),  in  entire  contrast  to 
the  language  of  2  Tim.  iv.  5-8,  18. 

The  apostle  arrived  a  prisoner  at  Rome 


28  THE   EPISTLES    OF   PAUL. 

early  in  the  year  62,  after  wintering  in  Malta. 
Two  years  longer  he  remained  there  in  mili- 
tary custody  (Acts  xxviii.  16,  30),  nnder  the 
accusation  of  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem.  This 
added  to  the  two  years  of  detention  at  Caesa- 
rea,  and  the  time  occupied  on  the  voyage, 
amounts  to  nearly  five  years  (59-64  a.d.),  out 
of  the  best  part  of  St.  Paul's  life,  spent  in 
captivity  through  the  malice  of  his  fellow- 
countrymen.  This  fourth  period  of  his  min- 
istry, the  time  of  his  prison-life,  was  not,  how- 
ever, the  least  fruitful.  To  it  we  owe  the 
epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians,  and 
Philemon,  with  that  to  the  Philippians. 

Fifth  Pekiod  of  Paul's  Ministry. 

The  narrative  of  St.  Luke  leaves  it  open  to 
us  to  suppose,  what  other  historical  indica- 
tions lead  us  confidently  to  believe,  namely, 
that  the  apostle  was  released  from  his  captiv- 
ity at  Rome,*  and  that  his  ministry  was  pro- 
longed to  a  fifth  period,  extending  from  64  to 
66  or  67  a.d.  Of  this  last  stage  of  his  life  the 
epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus  are  our  only 

*  If  he  was  so  released,  it  must  have  been  before  the  great 
fire  of  July,  64, — probably  in  the  spring  of  that  year.  Had 
he  remained  in  Rome  up  to  that  time,  he  would  inevitably 
have  fallen  a  victim  to  the  Neronian  persecution  in  the  fol- 
lowing autumn.  That  he  did  thus  perish  many  historians 
assume. 


CHKONOLOGY.  29 

memorials.  For  these  letters  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  find  a  fit  place  at  any  earlier  point 
in  St.  Paul's  history.  They  lie  outside  the 
field  of  his  work  as  that  is  presented  to  us  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

St.  Luke's  guidance  having  failed  us,  it  is 
only  in  a  conjectural  way  that  we  can  repre- 
sent to  ourselves  the  apostle's  course  in  these 
last  years  of  his  ministry.  In  accordance 
with  his  intention  and  previous  custom,  it  is 
likely  that  on  his  release  he  made  it  his  first 
business  to  re\dsit  the  churches  already  es- 
tablished, those  of  Macedonia  and  Asia  Minor 
in  particular  (Phil.  ii.  24 ;  Philem.  22).  Then 
we  can  imagine  him  spending  a  happy  winter 
once  more  amongst  his  old  friends  at  Antioch 
(64-65  A.D.).  With  the  spring  the  great  apos- 
tle would  set  out  to  conquer  new  fields  for 
Christ ;  and  we  are  strongly  inclined  to  think 
that  he  fulfilled  his  cherished  purpose  (Eom. 
XV.  24)  of  preaching  the  gospel  in  the  far-off 
land  of  Spain,  the  western  limit  of  the  then 
known  world.  It  is  only  on  this  assumption 
that  we  can  understand  the  words  written 
about  thirty  years  later  by  Clement  of  Eome 
— a  sober  writer,  not  given  to  rhetorical 
flights — when  he  says  (1  Epistle,  §  v.) :  "  Paul 
having  taught  righteousness  to  the  whole 
^orld,  and  come  to  the  limit  of  the  tvest,  and 


30  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

borne  witness  before  the  rulers,  so  departed 
from  the  world  and  went  to  the  holy  place." 

How  long  St.  Paul  stayed  in  Spain,  if  he 
went  there,  we  cannot  tell.  When  he  wrote 
his  letter  to  Titus,  he  had  recently  evangelized 
the  island  of  Crete,  which  would  naturally 
lie  on  his  way  in  the  return  voyage  from  the 
west  (Tit.  i.  5).  At  the  time  of  writing  this 
epistle,  St.  Paul  was  setting  his  face  west- 
ward again,  intending  to  "winter  at  Nico- 
polis  "  (ch.  iii.  12),  a  port  of  Epirus  opposite 
the  Italian  coast.  The  epistle  to  Titus  is  so 
nearly  allied  to  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy, 
that  it  is  highly  probable  they  were  composed 
about  the  same  time.  And  the  latter  was 
addressed  to  Timothy  at  Ephesus,  where  the 
apostle  had  recently  left  him  in  charge,  while 
"  journeying  to  Macedonia  "  (1  Tim.  i.  3).  The 
reference  to  Corinth  in  2  Tim.  iv.  20  suggests 
that  the  writer  on  this  same  journey  had 
called  there  also.  From  Macedonia  or  Achaia, 
we  conjecture,  these  two  epistles  (1  Timothy 
and  Titus)  were  despatched. 

Whether  the  apostle  ever  reached  his  win- 
ter quarters  at  Nicopolis  we  know  not.  2  Tim- 
othy is  so  closely  connected  in  thought  with 
the  other  two  Pastorals  that  it  seems  more 
likely  to  us  that  the  Writer  was  re-arrested 
and  hurried  to  Rome — possibly  through  the 


CHRONOLOGY. 


31 


machinations  of  his  enemies  in  Ephesus 
(2  Tim.  i.  15,  iv.  14) — soon  after  writing  to 
his  two  helpers.  There  we  find  him,  in  the 
last  chapter  of  his  letter  to  Timothy,  some 
time  "before  winter,"  anticipating  his  need 
of  ''the  cloak  and  the  books  left  at  Troas," 
begging  his  "dear  child  Timothy"  to  hasten 
to  his  side.  He  has  made  a  first  successful 
defence;  but  is  nevertheless  expecting,  what 
the  persecuting  rage  of  Nero  now  rendered 
certain,  that  his  present  trial  will  end  with 
his  death  (ch.  iv.  16-18).  "The  time  of  my 
departure,"  he  writes,  "  is  come.  I  have  fought 
the  good  fight.  I  have  finished  the  race.  I 
have  kept  the  faith !  .  .  .  The  Lord  shall  de- 
liver me  from  every  evil  work,  and  bring  me 
safe  unto  His  heavenly  kingdom.  To  Whom 
be  the  glory  forever  and  ever.  Amen." 
Tradition  says  that  he  died  by  beheading. 

Let  us  now  summarize  our  chronological 
results. 


EVENTS  OF  PAUL'S  LIFE. 

Saul's  conversion. 
Saul  in  Arabia. 


First  visit  to  Jerusa- 
lem, and  acquaint- 
ance with  Peter,  and 
with  James,  the 
Lord's  brother. 


A.D. 
36 

37 


LEADING   EVENTS  OF  GEN- 
ERAL HISTORY. 


Deposition 
Pilate. 


of      Pontius 


Death  of  the  Emperor  Ti- 
berius, and  accession  of 
Caius  (Caligula). 

Aretas  in  possession  of 
Damascus. 


32 


THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 


EVENTS  OF  PAUL'S  MFE. 


Saul  in  Cilicia. 


f  Saul  joins   Barnabas 
at  Antioch. 

Barnabas  and  Saul 
visit  Jerusalem,  witb 
help  against  the  ap- 
proaching famine, 
at  the  time  of  Her- 
od's persecution. 

Barnabas  and  Saul's 
expedition  to  Cy- 
prus, Pisidia,  and 
Lycaonia.  First  mis- 
sionary journey. 


Conference  of  Barna- 
bas and  Paul  with 
James,  Peter,  and 
John,  at  Jerusalem. 

Second  missionary  jour- 
ney, of  Paul  and 
Silas,  through  Asia 
Minor,  Macedonia, 
and  Greece. 


Epistles     to      the 
Thessalonians. 


Collision  between  Pe- 
ter and  Paul  at  An- 
tioch. 

Third  missionary  jour- 
ney, of  Paul  with 
Timothy  and  Titus, 
through  Asia  Minor 
to  Ephesus,  then  to 
Macedonia  and  Cor- 
inth. 


Epistles  to  the  Co- 
rinthians, Gala- 
TiANS,  AND  Romans. 


A.D. 

40 


41 


46? 
48 

51? 

53-54 

52 

53 

53-54 

54 

Winter 
54-55? 


55-59 

57 
58-59 


LEADING  EVENTS   OE  GEN- 
ERAL HISTORY. 

Caligula  attempts  to  set  up 
his  statue  in  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem. 

Death  of  Caixjs,  and  ac- 
cession of  Claudius. 

Herod  Agrippa  I.  made 
king  of  the  whole  of 
Palestine. 

Conquest  of  Britain  by 
the  Romans  commenced. 

King  Herod  dies;  Judaea 
placed  again  under  a 
Roman  Procurator. 


Herod  Agrippa  II.  made 
King  of  Chalcis;  his 
power  afterwards  ex- 
tended. 


Felix    appointed    Procu- 
rator of  Judsea. 

Expulsion    of    the    Jews 
from  Rome. 

Gallio        Proconsul        of 
Achaia. 

Death  of  Claudius,  and 
accession  of  Nero. 


Jonathan,  the  High  Priest, 
assassinated  by  the  Si- 
cam  (Dagger-men). 


CHEONOLOGY.                                   33 

VENTS  OF  PAUL'S  LIFE. 

A.D. 

LEADING  EVENTS   OF   GEN- 
ERAL HISTORY. 

Voyage  to  Jerusalem, 
arrest,  and  impris- 
onmeiit  at  Caesarea. 

59 

Appeal  to  Cassar,  and 
voyage  to  Rome. 

61 

Festus  appointed  Procu- 
rator. 

Revolt  of  Boadicea  in 
Britain. 

Two    years    of    Cap- 
tivity    at       Rome : 

EPISTLES  TO  THE  CO- 
LOSSIANS  AND  PHIL- 
EMON     AND      EpHE- 

siANS,  also  Philip- 

PIANS. 

62? 
62-64 

Martyrdom   of   James  at 
Jerusalem. 

Fourth  missionary  jour- 
ney.    Churches     of 
Asia  Minor,    Mace- 
donia,   and    Greece 
revisited;    Spain  (?) 
and  Crete  evangel- 
ized. 

64-66? 
64 

65 

Great  fire  of  Rome,  July 
19-25;   horrible  persecu- 
tion of  Christians. 

Nero  in  Greece. 

Epistles  to  Timothy 
AND  Titus. 

Martyrdom      of     St. 
Paul  and  St.  Peter. 

66? 

66 

66  or  67? 
68 

Outbreak  of  the   Jewish 
war  against  Rome. 

Murder  of  Nero. 

68,69 

Civil  war  in  the  Empire. 

70 

Fall  of  Jerusalem. 

It  will  be  seen  that  we  divide  the  "epistles 
into  four  groups : 

First.  The  two  to  the  Thessalonians,  writ- 
ten in  the  winter  of  53-54  a.d. 

Second.  1  Corinthians,  2  Corinthians,  Gala- 
tians  and  Romans,  written  probably  in  this 
order,  between  the  spring  of  58  and  of  59  a.d. 

Third.  Colossians,  Philemon,  and  Ephesi- 
ans,  written  contemporaneously,  and  Philip- 
pians  after  some  interval,  from  Eome,  prob- 
ably in  the  year  63. 


34  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Fourth.  The  three  Pastoral  epistles — 1  Tim- 
othy, Titus,  2  Timothy — following  in  close 
succession  in  the  last  year  of  the  apostle's  life, 
— ^.e.,  as  nearly  as  we  can  judge,  in  QQ  a.d. 

The  composition  of  the  thirteen  letters  ex- 
tended over  some  fliirteen  years ;  and  the  four 
groups  appear  to  have  been  separated  by  sim- 
ilar intervals  of  time. 

The  epistle  to  the  Hehretvs  does  not  appear 
in  the  above  scheme.  It  does  not  bear  St. 
Paul's  name ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
it  is  his  composition.  We  shall  add  a  supple- 
mentary chapter  on  this  epistle.  It  will  also 
form  the  subject  of  a  later  volume,  by  a  very 
able  hand,  in  this  series  of  handbooks. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  FOEM  AND   STYLE  OF  PAUL'S   WKITINGS. 

The  teaching  of  the  apostle  Paul  has  come 
down  to  US  in  the  shape  of  a  bundle  of  his  let- 
ters, thirteen  in  number,  addi'essed  some  of 
them  to  individual  friends  and  helpers  in  his 
work,  but  most  of  them  to  the  Christian  soci- 
eties that  he  had  founded.  They  are  not 
treatises,  directed  to  the  proof  of  theological 
doctrine;  nor  are  they  homilies,  devoted  to 
the  enforcement  of  specific  practical  duties: 
they  are  letters  of  a  friend  to  his  friends,  of 
the  absent  missionary  and  pastor  to  his  flock.* 
Their  peculiar  character  and  construction,  and 
the  mode  in  which  the  apostle's  views  are  set 
forth  in  them,  are  determined  by  their  episto- 
lary form. 

*  The  epistle  to  the  Romans  is  an  exception  to  this  rule, 
and  approaches  in  some  degree  the  form  of  a  systematic 
doctrinal  treatise.  But  even  with  this  church  the  apostle 
has  many  personal  ties,  on  the  strength  of  which,  and  in 
order  to  prepare  for  his  coming,  he  addresses  to  it  his  great 
theological  letter.  The  Colossian  Christians  he  felt  to  be, 
through  Epaphras,  as  his  own  childi-en  in  the  faith,  though 
he  had  never  set  eyes  upon  them. 

35 


36  the  epistles  op  paul. 

Peksonal  and  Incidental  Wkitings. 

Hence  we  must  keep  before  our  minds  the 
fact  we  are  dealing  with  personal  documents, 
writings  which  originate  in  the  relationship  of 
the  writer  and  readers.  The  mutual  acquaint- 
ance and  affection  of  the  two  parties,  their 
common  interests  and  affairs,  supply  the  basis 
on  which  rest  the  communications  that  pass 
between  them.  The  personal  element  is  the 
primary  and  essential  factor  in  all  genuine 
epistles. 

It  is  from  this  personal  standpoint  that  all 
questions,  whether  of  theology  or  morals  or 
church  administration,  that  arise  in  St.  Paul's 
letters  are,  in  reality,  approached.  They  come 
before  us  in  the  shape  in  which  they  actually 
emerged,  as  problems  exercising  the  minds 
of  St.  Paul  and  his  friends  and  converts,  as, 
in  fact,  the  questions  of  the  hour  to  them.  By 
means  of  the  epistles  we  can  watch  and  trace 
these  questions  springing  out  of  the  constitu- 
tion and  surroundings  of  the  young  apostolic 
churches,  and  presenting  themselves  one  after 
another  for  discussion  and  settlement.  So 
these  writings  give  to  the  subjects  of  which 
they  treat  the  living  interest  and  actuality 
that  belong  to  the  career  of  the  great  apostle, 
and  to  his  labors  in  the  care  and  shepherding 
of  his  strangely  mingled  flock. 


FOEM   AND    STYLE   OF  PAUL'S   WKITINGS.      37 

With  this  personal  origin  is  connected  the 
fact  that  St.  Paul's  epistles  are  incidental  ivrit- 
ings.  They  were  not  composed,  as  letters  be- 
tween friends  sometimes  may  be,  according  to 
a  fixed  plan  and  at  regular  intervals ;  but,  as 
occasion  arose,  to  meet  some  passing  necessity, 
to  give  expression  to  some  feeling  or  wish  that 
possessed  the  writer's  mind  at  the  time.  He 
writes  to  Corinth,  because  the  church  there 
has  written  to  him  asking  a  number  of  urgent 
questions  (1  Cor.  vii.  1,  viii.  1,  xii.  1),  and  be- 
cause it  "  has  been  shown  to  him  by  Chloe's 
people  that  there  are  strifes  amongst"  them 
(1  Cor.  i.  11);  to  the  Colossians,  since  Epa- 
phras,  their  minister,  has  come  to  Eome,  tell- 
ing him  of  the  love  borne  to  him  by  the 
churches  of  the  Lycus  valley  which  he  has 
never  seen,  and  describing  the  insidious  error 
that  endangered  their  faith  (Col.  i.  4-9,  iv.  12, 
13) ;  to  Philippi,  on  the  occasion  of  Epaphro- 
ditus  arriving  with  a  welcome  contribution  to 
his  need  from  its  affectionate  people  (Phil.  ii. 
25,  30,  iv.  18).  And  yet  through  these  discon- 
nected and  seemingly  casual  letters  of  St. 
Paul — thrown  off  on  the  spur  of  the  occasion, 
and  under  the  most  various  circumstances — 
in  the  intervals  of  travel,  in  prison,  or  from 
his  winter  quarters — there  runs  one  master 
pui-pose,  one  great  system  of  truth,  one  ever- 


38  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

widening  and  deepening  conception  of  human 
life  and  the  things  of  God.  The  variety  of 
circumstances — one  might  almost  say,  of  acci- 
dents— to  which  the  epistles  owe  their  origin, 
and  the  entire  absence  of  plan  and  arrange- 
ment on  the  writer's  part  in  their  composition, 
make  the  unity  and  the  continuous  march  of 
thought  that  we  find  in  them  the  more  im- 
pressive. 

Style  Attractive,  but  Difficult. 

The  style  of  the  epistles,  while  due  chiefly  to 
the  writer's  temperament  and  training,  is  yet 
determined  to  a  large  extent  by  the  conditions 
above  described.  It  is  said,  "  The  style  is  the 
man ;"  and  this  is  eminently  true  of  epistolary 
style.  Hence,  not  unfrequently,  the  letters  of 
a  gifted  writer  are  more  attractive  than  his 
labored  works,  just  because  of  the  absence  in 
them  of  literary  effort  and  artifice,  because 
they  are  written  out  of  the  freedom  of  the 
heart  and  are  the  frank  and  spontaneous  ex- 
pression of  the  man.  St.  Paul's  epistles  have 
this  engaging  quality,  at  once  their  difficulty 
and  their  charm.  "The  epistolary  style  of 
Paul,"  says  M.  Renan,  "  is  the  most  personal 
that  ever  was.  One  might  describe  it  as  a 
rapid  conversation,  reported  verbatim  and 
without    correction."    There   is    nothing    in 


FOKM  AND   STYLE  OF  PAUL'S  AVKITINGS.      39 

literature  more  transparent,  nothing  that  ex- 
hibits in  a  more  vivid  and  moving  way  the 
personality  of  the  writer. 

Now  St.  Paul's  is  not  an  easy  style.  For  he 
was  not  a  man  who  took  things  easily.  Life 
was  for  him  a  continual  struggle,  inwardly  as 
well  as  outwardly.  Underneath  the  activity 
of  his  missionary  life,  or  the  calm  of  his  prison 
days,  there  was  going  on  within  him  an  un- 
ceasing effort  and  striving  to  "  apprehend  that 
for  which  he  was  apprehended  by  Christ 
Jesus."  He  is  laboring  to  bring  to  birth 
thoughts  of  Grod  too  large  for  human  speech, 
"things  kept  secret  from  the  foundation  of 
the  world,"  to  "know  the  love  that  passeth 
knowledge  "■  and  sound  its  unf athomed  depths. 
This  conflict  becomes  in  his  epistles  a  conflict 
between  thought  and  speech,  between  the 
might  of  the  spirit  and  the  infirmity  of  the 
flesh.  The  wrestling  and  strain  of  the  apos- 
tle's mind  is  manifest  in  the  involved,  contorted 
sentences  of  which  many  of  his  great  passages 
consist.  With  broken  outcries  and  halting 
yet  impetuous  utterance,  he  sweeps  us  breath- 
less through  his  long  periods,  as  he  pursues 
far  up  the  steep  some  lofty  thought,  while 
language  threatens  every  moment  to  break 
down  under  the  weight  it  is  compelled  to 
carry ;  until  at  last  he  reaches  his  magnificent 


40  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

climax,  and  the  tangled  path  through  which 
he  has  forced  his  way  lies  clear  beneath  our 
feet.  Grreat  as  were  the  resources  of  the  apos- 
tle's dialect,  yet  they  are  insufficient ;  and  he 
is  continually  coining  new  words,  or  filling 
with  a  new  content,  which  overflows  them,  the 
old  phrases  of  the  Grrseco-Jewish  schools.  St. 
Paul  was  a  pioneer  in  thought  and  religion. 
It  was  his  work  to  open  a  pathway  for  the 
truth  of  Christ  to  the  conscience  and  intellect 
of  the  Gentile  world,  to  translate  the  "  salva- 
tion ^  that  was  '^  of  the  Jews "  for  the  under- 
standing of  mankind.  It  was  a  task  of  extreme 
difficulty,  and  has  been  achieved  with  wonder- 
ful success;  but  that  difficulty  has  left  its 
mark  on  the  style  of  the  apostle  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, even  as  his  lame  thigh  was  a  witness  to 
wrestling  Jacob's  victory. 

This  subtle  and  eager  thinker  was,  at  the 
same  time,  a  man  of  ardent  feeling.  St.  Paul's 
passionate  disposition  was  sanctified,  but  not 
destroyed,  by  Divine  grace.  His  fine  sensi- 
bility of  temperament  gave  to  his  address 
the  peculiar  delicacy  and  tact  by  which  it  is 
characterized,  notwithstanding  his  frequent 
abruptness ;  and  to  that  temperament  equally 
belong  his  extraordinary  fire,  rapidity,  and 
vehemence.  Much  of  the  obscurity  and  in- 
volvement of  his  language  is  caused  by  con- 


FOKM  AND   STYLE   OF  PAUL'S   WKITINGS.      41 

tending  undercurrents  of  feeling  in  him,  by  the 
quick  play  of  emotion  in  his  singularly  mobile 
nature.  In  the  soul  of  the  apostle  Paul  logic 
and  sentiment,  passion  and  severe  thought, 
were  fused  into  a  combination  of  unexampled 
pliancy,  tenderness,  and  strength. 

While  his  style  has,  therefore,  its  character- 
istic defects  and  was,  not  unnaturally,  consid- 
ered by  Corinthian  critics  wanting  in  "  excel- 
lency of  speech  and  of  wisdom,"  it  was  for  all 
that  one  of  the  keenest  instruments  that  a 
human  mind  has  ever  wielded.  In  the  con- 
struction of  his  sentences  and  the  connection 
of  one  phrase  with  another  there  is  frequent 
uncertainty,  arising  from  the  very  throng  and 
pressure  of  his  thoughts :  the  thoughts  them- 
selves, when  you  once  discern  them,  are 
admirably  clear  and  luminous.  There  is  noth- 
ing hazy,  nothing  loose  or  nebulous,  in  St. 
Paul's  theology.  His  leading  terms,  the  great 
watchwords  of  his  doctrine,  are  framed  to  last 
forever.  They  are  as  crystalline  in  definition 
as  they  are  massive  and  deep  in  significance. 
His  governing  ideas  are  developed  and  applied 
with  matchless  logic, — a  logic,  indeed,  more 
rabbinical  than  philosophical  in  form,  but  that 
goes  straight  as  an  arrow  to  its  mark,  and 
that  welds  into  its  argument  as  it  moves  on- 
ward things  highest  and  lowliest,  and  seizes  at 


42  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

each  point  the  readiest  expedient  to  clear  its 
course  and  to  bnild  up  the  highway  for  the 
ransomed  of  the  Lord. 

Bold  as  are  St.  PauPs  methods  of  reasoning, 
they  are  no  less  sure.  His  subtlety  is  the 
subtlety  of  truth  itself.  His  obscurities  are 
those  of  depth,  not  of  dimness  or  confusion; 
the  obscurities  of  a  mind  profoundly  sensible 
of  the  complexities  of  life  and  thought  and 
sensitive  to  their  varying  hues,  their  crossing 
lights  and  shadows, — of  a  man  who,  with  all 
he  knows,  is  conscious  that  he  only  "  knows  in 
part."  If  we  must  speak  of  defects^  they  are 
the  defects  of  a  teacher  who  is  too  full  of  the 
grandeur  of  the  truth  he  utters,  and  too  much 
absorbed  in  the  Divine  work  of  his  calling,  to 
make  words  and  style  his  care.  "  If  I  am  rude 
in  speech,"  he  gently  says,  "  yet  not  in  knowl- 
edge" (2  Cor.  xi.  6).  In  this,  as  in  his  other 
infirmities,  well  might  the  apostle  glory. 

Oeder  and  Contents  of  the  Epistles. 

As  to  tlie  order  of  procedure  in  St.  Paul's 
epistles:  they  begin  with  the  salutation  of 
"  Grace  and  peace,"  which  appears  to  be  of  his 
own  coining,  "  mercy  "  being  tenderly  inserted 
in  the  letters  to  Timothy.  This  salutation  is 
variously  qualified  and  expanded,  in  some  in- 
stances serving  to  strike  already  the  keynote 
of  the  epistle.    A  thanksgiving  is  next  offered 


FOEM  AND   STYLE  OF  PAUL'S  WETTINGS.      43 

to  Gocl  for  the  special  Christian  excellencies 
discerned  in  his  correspondents,  usually  sup- 
plemented by  an  appropriate  prayer  on  their 
behalf.  It  is  after  this  act  of  devotion  that 
the  object  of  the  letter  comes  into  view;  and 
where,  as  in  Romans  or  Colossians,  that  object 
is  theological,  we  may  look  for  some  funda- 
mental statement  of  doctrine  at  this  point. 
The  doctrine  asserted  is  then  explained  and 
vindicated  at  large,  in  such  fashion  as  circum- 
stances may  require ;  and  the  doctrinal  exposi- 
tion is  followed  up  by  the  moral  and  practical 
teaching  of  the  ejDistle.  Details  of  personal 
news,  messages  and  greetings,  with  a  final 
benediction,  conclude  the  letter.  Such  is  the 
order  of  the  theological  epistles — Eomans, 
Galatians,  Ephesians,  Colossians,  and  2  Thes- 
salonians. 

Where,  however,  the  writer's  main  business 
is  of  a  personal  or  practical  nature,  this  plan 
cannot  be  observed :  the  statements,  explana- 
tions, or  directions  to  be  given  concerning  the 
matters  calling  for  the  letter  naturally  occupy- 
ing the  foreground,  while  exhortations  of  a 
more  general  character  come  in  afterwards; 
and  theological  passages  occur  here  and  there 
as  occasion  suggests,  and  wherever  the  hand- 
ling of  the  matter  in  question  happens  to  strike 
upon  the  underlying  spiritual  principles  of  the 
apostle's  teaching.    This  is  the  case,  for  exam- 


44  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

pie,  with  the  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians. 
The  rich  theological  truth  they  contain  is  de- 
veloped, for  the  most  part,  incidentally  and  by 
the  way. 

We  shall  find,  therefore,  that  the  contents 
of  the  epistles  may  be  classified  nnder  the  fol- 
lowing heads, — as  personal,  theological^  ethical, 
administrative,  and  devotional.  These  various 
topics  and  constituent  elements  run  into  each 
other  and  are  combined  in  numberless  ways. 
We  cannot  at  any  point  draw  a  strict  line 
between  them.  But  it  is  the  proportion  in 
which  they  are  blended  and  the  preponder- 
ance of  the  ouQ  constituent  or  the  other  which 
gives  to  each  epistle  its  distinctive  complexion. 
Romans  is,  above  all  others,  the  theological 
epistle.  2  Corinthians  and  Fhilippians  are  in- 
tensely personal.  In  1  Corinthians  and  the 
Pastorals  the  practical  and  administrative  in- 
terests predominate,  with  a  large  infusion  both 
of  the  ethical  and  doctrinal.  In  1  Thessalo- 
nians  the  personal  and  ethical,  in  Colossians 
and  Ephesians  the  doctrinal  and  ethical  are 
equally  balanced,  with  a  conspicuous  develop- 
ment of  the  devotional  vein  in  the  last  named. 
Galatians  is  the  best  example  of  the  union  of 
the  personal,  theological,  and  moral  in  St. 
Paul's  writings,  the  theological  asserting  its 
supremacy  over  the  other  two. 


CHAPTER  III. 

TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 

The  two  epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  form 
the/r5^  group  of  St.  Paul's  extant  letters  (see 
pp.  22,  32).  They  are  probably  the  earliest 
writings  of  the  New  Testament.  In  respect 
of  their  general  characteristics,  we  may  style 
them  missionary  letters;  and  in  view  of  the 
doctrine  prominent  in  them,  epistles  of  the  sec- 
ond advent.  They  were  written,  as  we  have 
already  shown,  during  the  apostle's  second 
missionary  journey,  when  he  planted  his  first 
European  churches,  and  was  in  the  fuU  tide 
of  evangelistic  labor  and  triumph. 

Date  and  Connection  of  the  Two  Lettees. 

"We  date  these  epistles,  with  certainty,  from 
the  earlier  part  of  St.  Paul's  eighteen  months' 
residence  at  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  11) — i.e.,  from 
the  close  of  53  or  beginning  of  54  a.d.  In  no 
other  instance  are  the  occasion  and  mutual 
relation  of  any  of  St.  Paul's  writings  so  easily 
made  out  as  in  this  pair  of  letters.  The  second 
letter  was  sent  shortly  after  the  first,  of  which 

45 


46  THE   EPISTLES    OF   PAUL. 

it  is  almost  a  continuation.  "  It  deals  in  expla- 
nation and  further  enforcement  of  the  same 
leading  topics  (comp.  2  Ep.  ii.  1  with  1  Ep.  i. 
10,  iv.  15-17,  V.  1-10,  23 ;  and  2  Ep.  iii.  6-15 
with  1  Ep.  iv.  11,  12,  V.  14 :  "  admonish  the 
disorderly").  The  situation  and  state  of  the 
church,  as  indicated  in  the  two  epistles,  are 
much  the  same  (comp.  2  Ep.  i.  3-5,  iii.  4  with 
1  Ep.  i.  3,  6,  ii.  14,  iii.  2,  4-9, 10,  iv.  1 :  R.V.,  9, 
10) ;  certain  evils  to  which  the  first  letter  called 
attention  have  been  aggravated  in  the  inter- 
val between  the  two.  In  vocabulary  and  turn 
of  expression,  and  in  the  mood  of  the  writer's 
mind  in  the  two  epistles,  there  is  a  close  re- 
semblance manifest  to  every  attentive  reader, 
such  as  does  not  exist  in  the  case  of  writings 
of  the  apostle  separated  by  any  considerable 
distance  of  time. 

Now,  the  first  epistle  was  despatched  not 
long  after  St.  Paul's  mission  to  Thessalonica. 
A  few  months,  at  most,  had  elapsed  since  the 
establishment  of  the  church.  This  the  whole 
tenor  of  the  letter  shows.  The  apostle  dwells 
in  the  first  two  chapters  on  the  coming  of  the 
missionaries  to  this  city,  on  the  reception  of 
the  gospel  there,  on  the  conversion  of  his 
readers  to  the  new  faith,  and  the  character  and 
spirit  of  their  Christian  life  in  its  beginning. 
From  this  he  draws  the  material  for  his  thanks- 


TO   THE   THESSALONIANS.  47 

givings  to  God,  and  for  his  commendations 
and  encouragements  of  his  persecuted  flock. 
No  more  recent  event,  no  later  stage  of  expe- 
rience, either  on  his  part  or  on  theirs,  is  so 
much  as  mentioned.  Chap.  iv.  13-18  gives 
decisive  evidence  of  the  fact  that  1  Thessalo- 
nians  was  addressed  to  a  church  in  the  very- 
infancy  of  its  Christian  growth.  The  apostle 
"  would  not  have  "  his  brethren  at  Thessalon- 
ica  "  ignorant  concerning  them  that  fall  asleep  " 
(R.V. :  more  strictly,  are  falling  asleej)).  Death 
had  begun  to  visit  this  brotherhood.  The 
survivors  were  seized  by  a  strange  fear  lest 
their  departed  friends,  dying  before  the  Lord's 
return,  should  have  thereby  lost  their  place 
and  their  share  in  His  approaching  advent. 
This  question  had  evidently  arisen  amongst 
them  for  the  first  time ;  and  it  is  never  long, 
alas!  in  any  community,  of  size  beyond  the 
smallest,  before  death  takes  his  tribute  from 
its  ranks. 

St.  Paul  gives  an  account  of  his  proceedings 
since  leaving  Thessalonica.  He  departed  most 
unwillingly,  with  the  intention  of  returning 
soon  to  complete  his  work,  which  was  left  in 
an  unfinished  state  (ch.  ii.  17,  iii.  10).  He  had 
conceived  a  very  tender  regard  for  this  soci- 
ety, and  left  it  exposed  to  a  furious  storm 
of  persecution  (ch.  ii.  8,  19,  20,  iii.  3,  4,  12). 


48  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

Since  Ms  departure,  an  intolerable  apprehen- 
sion had  possessed  his  mind  on  its  account. 
Twice  he  attempted  to  return,  but  in  vain. 
At  considerable  sacrifice,  he  had  sent  Timothy 
from  Athens  in  his  place  (ch.  iii.  1-5).  Tim- 
othy has  now  returned,  joining  the  apostle  at 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  5),  and  bringing  tidings 
that  give  him  intense  satisfaction  and  are  as 
new  life  to  him  in  his  arduous  work  at  Corinth 
(ch.  iii.  6-10).  At  once  he  sits  down  to  write, 
out  of  a  deeply  moved  heart,  this  grateful, 
affectionate,  and  fatherly  epistle.  It  is  the 
letter  of  a  father  in  Christ  to  his  disciples  and 
dear  friends;  of  a  missionary  to  a  band  of 
converts  but  newly  gathered  out  of  heathen- 
ism— to  a  church  "  in  its  earliest  love,"  whose 
faith  wears  the  freshness  and  eager  enthusi- 
asm of  youth  and  morning  hours,  not  without 
the  defects  of  knowledge  which  riper  experi- 
ence and  instruction  will  correct. 

St.  Paul's  narrative  and  the  references  to 
his  connection  with  Thessalonica,  given  in 
chaps,  i.-iii.,  should  be  compared  throughout 
with  the  full  account  of  the  mission  to  Mace- 
donia and  Achaia  contained  in  Acts  xvii., 
xviii.  At  no  other  point  have  we  material  for 
comparison  between  the  Acts  and  the  epistles 
so  detailed  and  continuous  as  these  documents 
afford.     The  story  told  by  St.  Luke  agrees  as 


TO   THE   THESSALONIANS.  49 

fully  as  could  be  desired,  in  a  manifestly  in- 
dependent way  and  in  a  number  of  coinci- 
dences lying  below  the  surface,  with  the  no- 
tices of  place  and  circumstance  given  by  the 
apostle ;  and  this  agreement  tends  strongly  to 
verify  the  genuineness  and  historical  accuracy 
of  both  the  writings  thus  compared.* 

Occasion  of  the  Epistles. 

The  apostle  wrote  to  these  people,  because 
he  could  not  go  to  see  them.  This  was  due, 
indeed,  to  Jewish  persecution  and  the  "  hin- 
dering of  Satan"  (ch.  ii.  18).  At  the  same 
time,  it  marks  a  new  juncture  in  St.  Paul's  ca- 
reer as  apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  The  churches 
founded  upon  his  first  tour  lay  comparatively 
near  to  Antioch,  his  original  headquarters, 
and  could  all  be  visited  from  that  centre  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months.  It  was  otherwise 
when  his  mission-field  extended  to  Europe, 
and  included  two  continents.  From  this  time 
it  was  impossible  for  him  to  superintend  the 
churches  he  had  founded,  without  the  aid  of 
messengers  and  letters.  He  is  obliged  to 
write,  and  to  have  a  staff  of  helpers  whom  he 

*  See  Paley's  Horce  Pmtlincc,  chaps,  ix.,  x.,  the  classical 
book  upon  this  subject,  the  study  of  which  is  an  education 
in  historical  criticism.  Paley  is  far,  however,  from  having 
exhausted  the  mine  opened  in  this  work. 


50  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

may  send  backwards  and  forwards  between 
liimseK  and  distant  Christian  societies.  To 
this  growth  and  enlargement  of  the  field  of  his 
labors  we  owe  the  apostolic  letters.  The  cir- 
cumstances that  called  forth  these  epistles  are 
not  far  to  seek : 

(1)  The  persecution  that  had  driven  Panl 
and  his  companions  from  Thessalonica  (Acts 
xvii.  5-10)  still  continued  in  a  violent  and 
harassing  form,  severely  testing  the  faith  and 
resolution  of  the  infant  church  (1  Ep.  i.  6,  iii. 
2-8;  2  Ep.  i.  4-7).  It  originated  with  the 
Jeivs  of  the  city,  whose  hostihty  pursued  the 
missionaries  to  Beroea ;  and  St.  Paul  was  ex- 
periencing, or  expecting,  similar  treatment 
from  his  compatriots  in  Corinth  at  the  very 
time  of  writing.  Hence  the  stern  denuncia- 
tion which  he  delivers  against  them  in  1  Ep. 
ii.  14-16. 

(2)  From  the  same  quarter,  doubtless,  pro- 
ceeded the  false  insimiations  against  St.  Paul 
and  Ms  colleagues,  to  which  he  replies  in  chaps, 
ii.  and  iii.  Corrupt  and  selfish  motives  were 
imputed  to  them  (ch.  ii.  2-6) ;  and  his  depart- 
ure and  continued  absence  from  Thessalonica 
were  put  down  to  fear  on  his  own  account,  or 
to  indifference  to  the  fate  of  his  suffering  fol- 
lowers. Slanders  of  this  kind  were  the  natural 
resort  of  Jewish  cunning.     The  pains  which 


TO   THE  THESSALONIANS.  51 

the  apostle  takes  to  exculpate  himself  to  his 
readers  (ch.  ii.  1-12),  the  earnestness  and 
warmth  of  protestation  with  which  he  dwells 
upon  his  affection  towards  them  and  concern 
for  their  welfare  (ch.  ii.  7,  8,  ii.  17-iii.  11),  are 
explained  at  once  when  we  consider  that  their 
ears  were  incessantly  plied  with  malicious 
suggestions  against  the  absent  missionaries 
of  Christ,  whom,  after  all,  they  had  known  but 
for  a  short  time. 

(3)  The  apostles  had  spoken  much  at  Thes- 
salonica  concerning  the  rekirn  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  from  heaven^  and  the  future  hmgdom  of 
God  (1  Ep.  i.  10,  ii.  12,  19,  iii.  13,  iv.  14,  v.  23, 
24 ;  2  Ep.  i.  5, 10,  ii.  1,  5, 14).  What  they  said 
on  the  subject  had  impressed  the  Thessalo- 
nians  very  deeply ;  but  their  words  had  been 
exaggerated  and  misunderstood  in  various 
ways.  Some  feared  that  their  dead,  or  dying, 
friends  would  be  shut  out  of  the  approaching 
kingdom  (1  Ep.  iv.  13-18) ;  others  were  busy 
calculating  its  "  times  and  seasons  "  (ch.  v.  1). 
There  were  those  who  presumed,  notwith- 
standing the  admonitions  of  the  first  letter,  to 
announce  that  "  the  day  of  the  Lord  was  close 
at  hand,"  and  who  even  claimed  the  apostle's 
authority  for  this  declaration  (2  Ep.  ii.  1,  2). 

The  agitation  prevailing  on  this  subject  had 
assumed  a  morbid  and  dangerous  character. 


52  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

In  some  cases  it  produced  wild  excitement 
(2  Ep.  ii.  2) ;  in  others,  unreasonable  sorrow 
and  alarm  (1  Ep.  iv.  13 ;  2  Ep.  ii.  2).  Several 
members  of  the  church  took  occasion  to  leave 
their  employment,  bringing  the  burden  of  their 
maintenance  on  the  society,  and  disregarding 
the  remonstrance  of  its  officers;  the  kindly 
and  guarded  reproof  given  to  this  party  in  the 
first  epistle  (ch.  ii.  9,  iv.  10-12,  v.  12-14)  failed 
to  effect  their  amendment;  and  St.  Paul  is 
compelled  to  deal  openly  and  sternly  with  the 
offenders  in  writing  a  second  time  (2  Ep.  iii. 
6-15) .  These  extravagances  disposed  the  more 
sober-minded  to  contemn  supernatural  gifts 
(1  Ep.  V.  19-22) ;  and  by  the  conflicts  of  tem- 
per and  opinion  thus  excited  the  peace  of  the 
whole  church  was  seriously  impaired  (1  Ep.  v. 
13,  14;  2Ep.  iii.  15,  16). 

Chakactee  and  Affinities  of  the  Epistles. 

In  the  main,  the  teaching  of  these  epistles 
is  simple  and  elementary.  There  is  no  theo- 
logical error  to  be  corrected,  no  great  doctrine 
to  be  expounded.  They  belong  to  an  early 
period  in  the  development  of  Gentile  Christian- 
ity, and  to  an  early  phase  of  the  apostle's  doc- 
trine, antecedent  to  the  great  controversy  re- 
specting Justification  and  Salvation  by  Faith. 
It  is  singular  that  in  all  their  eight  chapters 


TO   THE   THESSALONIANS.  53 

the  death  of  Christ  is  only  once  mentioned 
(1  Ep.  V.  8-11),  the  cross  not  even  once ;  and 
there  is  some  plausibihty  in  what  Dr.  Jowett 
says  in  his  Commentary,  that  the  gospel  Paul 
preached  to  the  Thessalonians  was  "not  the 
gospel  of  the  cross  of  Christ,  but  of  the  com- 
ing of  Christ."  In  reality,  it  was  both.  The 
second  could  have  no  comfort  or  joy  attending 
it — would,  in  fact,  be  no  gospel^  no  "  glad  tid- 
ings," without  the  first.  This  is  shown  iDlainly 
enough  by  St.  Paul's  words  in  the  passage 
just  referred  to.  The  whole  Pauline  theology 
of  the  cross  is  involved  in  what  is  there  said 
of  the  "obtaining  of  salvation  through  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ."  This  teaching  was  so 
readily  received  and  well  understood  at  Thes- 
salonica,  that  there  was  no  need  to  expound 
or  enforce  it  by  letter.  The  atonement  of 
Christ  is  the  presupposition  of  all  that  is  writ- 
ten in  these  two  epistles ;  and  they  are  no  less 
evangelical  because  it  is  but  once  expressly 
mentioned. 

In  their  simple  and  practical  character,  in 
the  comparative  absence  of  censure  and  of 
controversy,  and  in  the  warmth  of  reciprocal 
affection  between  the  apostle  and  his  readers 
which  the  epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  mani- 
fest, they  resemble  the  delightful  letter  written 
ten  years  later  to  the  Philippians,  their  near- 


54  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

est  neighbors.  These  characteristics  justify 
us  in  styling  the  three  in  common  Macedonian 
epistles. 

By  their  general  tone  and  subject-matter 
these  writings  associate  themselves  with  Paul's 
missionary  preacliing^  of  which  we  have  speci- 
mens in  Acts  xiv.  and  xvii.,  rather  than  with 
the  great  dogmatic  and  polemical  epistles  of 
the  second  group.  Chap.  i.  9  of  1  Thessalo- 
nians,  with  its  emphatic  contrast  between  "  the 
idols "  and  "  a  God  living  and  real,"  reminds 
us  forcibly  of  the  apostle's  addresses  to  the 
men  of  Lystra  and  of  Athens.  Throughout 
this  letter  the  greatest  emphasis  is  laid  on  the 
fact  that  the  gospel  is  God's  message,  and 
brings  believers  into  new  and  exalted  relations 
to  God^  to  His  kingdom  and  glory.  Along 
with  the  nature  of  Grod,  the  coming  of  Christ  to 
judge  the  tvorld  was  the  theme  of  Paul's  sermon 
on  Mars'  Hill ;  and  this  prospect  is  more  con- 
spicuous in  the  Thessalonian  than  in  any  other 
of  St.  Paul's  epistles.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Last  Judgment  was  a  powerful  instrument  of 
the  apostle's  evangelistic  work.  That  such  a 
judgment  would  certainly  take  place  and  was 
committed  to  the  hands  of  Jesus  Christ,  while 
sufficiently  alarming  to  Felix  and  his  like, 
was  "  good  news  "  for  every  honest  and  good 
heart,  in  a  world  where  wickedness  had  so 


TO   THE   THESSALONIANS.  55 

long  and  insolently  triumphed ;  and  its  decla- 
ration, St.  Paul  emphatically  says,  is  "  accord- 
ing to  my  gospel"  (Rom.  ii.  16).  We  have 
designated  these  writings  missionary  letters, 
since  they  belong  to  a  time  when  the  writer's 
preoccupations  were  of  a  missionary  character, 
and  because  they  were  addressed  to  a  young 
missionary  church,  still  subject  to  the  perse- 
cutions and  trials  attending  its  birth. 

The  doctrine  on  which  these  two  letters  lay 
their  stress  and  emphasis  is  that  of  the  paroii- 
sia,  or  second  advent  of  Christ.  They  compel 
us  to  remember,  what  in  these  later  times  we 
are  apt  to  forget,  that  the  coming  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  is  an  essential  and  glorious  part  of  the 
Christian  faith  and  of  God's  message  to  man- 
kind. Though  so  much  is  said  upon  the  sub- 
ject, it  is  discussed,  after  all,  in  a  somewhat 
incidental  fashion — by  way  of  explanation  and 
caution,  not  of  full  dogmatic  statement ;  and 
its  treatment  presents  points  of  very  great 
difficulty.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the 
apostle's  prediction  of  tJie  coming  of  Antichrist  * 
(2  Ep.  ii.  1-12),  which  the  original  readers,  re- 
membering his  previous  oral  teaching,  under- 

*  On  this  subject,  I  may  refer  to  the  Notes  upon  the  pas- 
sage in  question  in  the  Cambridge  Bihlc  for  Schools  and  Col- 
leges (1  and  2  Thessalonians),  and  the  Appendix  on  "The 
Man  of  Lawlessness." 


56  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

stood  with  a  clearness  that  is  unattainable  by 
ourselves.  What  he  now  writes  is  but  a  sup- 
plement to  what  he  had  previously  said,  and 
was  to  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  his  spoken 
words  (vv.  5,  6).  This  subject  in  later  epis- 
tles retires  into  the  background;  so  that  we 
depend  largely  on  these  documents  for  our 
knowledge  of  St.  Paul's  eschatological  views, 
his  doctrine  of  the  Last  Things.  In  fact, 
1  Thess.  iv.  13-18  and  2  Thess.  ii.  1-12,  together 
with  1  Cor.  XV.  35-58,  form  tlie  Pauline  apoc- 
alypse. They  occupy  in  our  apostle's  writings 
a  position  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Book 
of  Revelation  in  those  of  St.  John,  and  of  the 
visions  of  Daniel  in  the  Old  Testament. 

'  Analysis. — On  a  general  view  of  the  two 
epistles,  we  find  that  they  contain :  (1)  encour- 
agement to  the  readers  under  persecution  (1  Ep. 
i.-iii;  2  Ep.  i.),  blended  with  thanksgiving 
to  Grod  on  their  account,  in  which  the  apostle 
dwells  on  the  signal  nature  of  their  conversion, 
on  the  courage  and  fidelity  they  had  already 
shown,  and  the  glory  and  certainty  of  their 
heavenly  reward ;  (2)  self-defence  on  the  writ- 
er's part  (1  Ep.  ii.,  iii.),  who  without  referring 
directly  to  the  reproaches  made  against  him, 
yet  warmly  vindicates  his  conduct  and  gives 
strong  proof  of  his  affection  towards  the  Thes- 


TO   THE   THESSALONIANS.  57 

salonians;  (3)  explanation  on  various  points 
touching  the  second  advent  (1  Ep.  iv.  13- 
V.  11;  2  Ep.  ii.  1-12);  (4)  tvarnings  directed 
against  idleness  and  disorder  (1  Ep.  iv.  11,  12, 
V.  12-15 ;  2  Ep.  iii.  6-16),  and  against  unchas- 
tity,  the  special  vice  of  Greek  cities  (1  Ep.  iv. 
1-8) ;  (5)  prayers  and  exhortations  intermin- 
gled with  these  warnings,  bearing  chiefly  on 
consecration  towards  Grod,  and  on  peace  and 
brotherhood  within  the  Church  (1  Ep.  iii.  11- 
13,  iv.  9,  10,  V.  12-25 ;  2  Ep.  iii.  16). 

Taking  the  epistles  separately,  and  in  their 
own  order,  we  may  divide  them  into  the  fol- 
lowing sections : 

1  Epistle.     Address  and  Salutation,  chap.  i.  1. 
§  1.  The  Thanksgiving,  and  reasons  for  it,  chap.  i.  2-10. 
§  3.  The    apostle's    conduct   at   Tliessalonica,  chap.  ii. 

1-12. 
§  3.  (Parenthetical)  Jewish  persecutors  of  the  ChurcTi, 

chap.  ii.  13-16. 
§  4.  St.  Paul's  present  relations  to  the  Thessalonians, 

chap.  ii.  17-iii.  13. 
§  5.  A  lesson  in  Christian  morals,  chap.  iv.  1-12. 

(a)  On  Chastity,  vv.  1-8 ;  (6)  on  Brotherly  Love, 
vv.  9,  10  ;  (c)  on  Quiet  Diligence,  vv.  11,  12. 
§  6.  The  Coming  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  chap.  iv.  13-v.  11. 

(a)  Concerning  them  that  fall  asleep,  chap.  iv. 
13-18;  (6)  concerning  the  Day  of  the  Lord, 
chap.  V.  1-11. 
§  7.  Rules  for  the  Sanctified  Life,  chap.  v.  12-24. 
Conclusion,— containing  a  solemn    request  that   "the 
epistle  be  read  to  all,"  chap.  v.  25-28. 


58  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

2  Epistle. 

§  1.  Salutation  and  Thanksgiving,  cliap.  1.  1-4. 

§  2.  The  approaching  Ketribution,  chap.  i.  5-13. 

§  3.  The  revelation  of  the  Lawless  One,  chap.  ii.  1-12. 

§  4.  Words  of  Comfort  and  Prayer,  chap.  ii.  13-iii.  5. 

§  5.  Discipline  for  the  Disorderly,  chap.  iii.  6-15. 

Conclusion, — calling  attention  to  the  writer's  signature., 
chap.  iii.  16-18. 

We  append  brief  explanations,  by  way  of 
paraphrase,  of  the  four  most  difficult  para- 
graphs of  the  epistles  :* 

1  Ep.  ch.  iv.  1-8. — "Before  we  close  this  letter,  we  have 
some  requests  to  make,  which  we  urge  upon  you  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord  Jesus :  in  general,  that  you  follow  the 
rules  of  life  we  gave  you.  You  are  doing  this,  we  know ; 
but  there  is  room  for  progress.  In  particular,  be  free  from 
all  taint  of  unchastity.  Be  masters  of  your  bodily  passions. 
In  this  lies  great  part  of  your  sanctification.  Lust,  with 
its  dishonor,  is  the  mark  of  Gentile  godlessness.  This  sin 
brings  wrong  and  injury  on  others,  while  it  degrades  the 
man  himself.  The  Lord  is  the  avenger  of  every  offence 
against  social  purity.  By  such  offence  you  set  Him  at 
defiance,  and  outrage  His  Holy  Spirit  given  to  you." 

1  Ep.  ch.  iv.  13-18. — "Death  has  been  busy  amongst 
you  ;  and  your  sorrow  is  deepened  by  a  needless  fear  lest 
your  sleeping  friends  should  have  lost  their  part  in  the 
hope  of  Christ's  return,  and  their  place  in  His  heavenly 
kingdom.  Be  comforted  !  His  resurrection  from  the  dead 
is  a  pledge  of  theirs.     God  will  restore  them  at  His  return. 

*  These  renderings  are  freely  made.  They  are  an  attempt 
to  put  the  apostle's  thoughts,  in  a  form  as  clear  as  possible, 
into  our  own  words.  Only  when  we  can  do  this  with  some 
correctness  have  we  thoroughly  digested  them  and  made 
them  our  own. 


TO   THE  THESSALONIANS.  59 

Tliey  will  have  indeed  the  first  and  foremost  share  in  His  glo- 
rious advent.  At  His  trumpet's  call  they  will  rise  from  their 
sleep;  we  who  live  on  the  earth  will  rejoin  them;  and 
together,  in  one  body,  we  shall  ascend  to  meet  our  return- 
ing Lord.    With  Him  we  and  they  shall  then  dwell  forever ! " 

1  Ep.  ch.  V.  23,  24.— "Above  all,  may  God  Himself, 
Source  and  Giver  of  peace,  accomplish  your  full  sanctifl- 
cation  !  In  the  integrity  of  a  consecrated  spirit,  soul,  and 
body,  may  you  be  preserved  and  found  without  blame  at 
Christ's  coming.  God  has  called  you  for  this  end.  He  is 
faithful :  it  shall  be  done." 

2  Ep.  ch.  ii.  1-12.— St.  Paul  has  one  principal  and  urgent 
purpose  in  writing  now.  It  touches  "the  coming  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  in  regard  to  which  he  desires  to  re- 
move a  dangerous  and  disturbing  impression  existing  in 
Thessalonica,  to  the  effect  that  "  the  day  of  the  Lord  was 
close  at  hand  ! "  How  this  rumor  originated,  it  was  hard 
to  say,— whether  through  supposed  prophetic  intimation, 
or  the  ordinary  teaching  of  the  church,  or  from  some  mis- 
understanding or  abuse  of  the  apostle's  written  words ;  but 
its  disastrous  effect  was  manifest,  and  its  falsity. 

"I  gave  a  token,"  the  apostle  writes,  "of  that  which 
must  precede  the  final  coming  of  Christ :  there  will  be  first 
the  apostasy,  and  the  revelation  of  the  Man  of  Lawlessness, 
the  great  enemy  of  God.  He  will  attempt  to  annihilate 
religion,  and  will  seat  himself  in  God's  temple  as  the  sole 
object  of  human  worship.  The  spirit  of  atheistic  lawless- 
ness, to  be  incarnated  in  him,  is  already  actively  at  work, 
but  for  the  present  tinder  restraint,  as  I  pointed  out  to 
you.  One  day,  however,  the  restraint  will  be  withdrawn  ; 
and  then  the  Lawless  One  will  stand  revealed  !— whom  the 
Lord  Jesus  by  His  breath  will  consume  and  destroy  by  the 
splendor  of  His  coming !  Satan  will  instigate  the  great 
Opposer,  and  attest  His  coming  by  miracles,  suited  to  de- 
ceive those  whose  hearts  are  inclined  to  falsehood.  Their 
deception  will  be  the  fit  punishment  for  their  rejection  of 
the  truth  of  God,  and  their  love  of  lies  and  wickedness." 


CHAPTER  TV. 

THE  FOUR  EVANGELICAL  EPISTLES. 

The  Thessalonian  letters  contain  very  little 
that  bears  directly  on  what  we  are  accustomed 
to  call  the  doctrines  of  salvation.  With  the 
exception  of  1  Thess.  v.  8-10,  there  is  no  state- 
ment whatever  made  in  those  epistles  on  the 
subject  of  the  atonement  of  Christ  and  the 
efficacy  of  faith  in  His  blood.  In  the  second 
group  of  St.  Paul's  writings,  to  which  we  now 
pass,  the  case  is  entirely  altered.  Here  the 
cross  meets  us  at  every  turn.  "Before  our 
eyes  Jesus  Christ  is  evidently  set  forth — cru- 
cified" (Gal.  iii.  1).  As  these  are  beyond 
question  the  greatest  of  the  apostle's  letters, 
so  beyond  question  the  cross  of  Jesus  Christ 
is  the  greatest  and  most  conspicuous  object  in 
them. 

It  was  the  defence  of  "the  word  of  the 
cross"  that  called  forth  all  his  powers  and 
roused  them  to  their  full  exercise.  Through 
that  defence,  carried  on  in  the  Corinthian, 
Galatian,  and  Eoman  letters,  we  find  our  way 
to  the  heart  of  the  man  himself,  and  to  the 
heart  of  his  theology.    Here  we  learn  the  se- 

60 


THE  FOUE  EVANGELICAL  EPISTLES.  61 

cret  of  the  spell  by  wliich  lie  moved  the  world 
of  his  own  times,  and  moves  it  still  with  so 
potent  a  sway.  St.  PauPs  other  letters  are 
great  and  inspired  compositions;  but  half 
their  greatness  comes  from  their  association 
with  these.  "  I  determined  not  to  know  any- 
thing among  you,  save  Jesus  Christ,  and  Him 
crucified"  (1  Cor.  ii.  2).  Such  is  the  mood  in 
which  he  now  takes  up  his  pen.  These  words, 
all  but  prefixed  to  the  first  of  the  epistles  of 
the  third  missionary  journey,  might  serve  as 
motto  to  the  group.  They  are  written  from 
the  standpoint  of  Calvary.  Christ's  atone- 
ment forms  their  central  and  dominant  theme, 
as  His  second  advent  that  of  the  epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians.  For  this  reason  we  entitle 
them  collectively  the  evangelical  epistles ;  and 
we  shall  discuss  in  this  chapter  their  common 
features  and  surroundings. 

During  the  four  or  five  years  that  had 
elapsed  since  the  writing  of  1  and  2  Thessalo- 
nians, many  things  have  happened.  Most  of 
this  interval  the  apostle  had  spent  at  Ephesus, 
preaching  there  with  a  success  exceeding  any- 
thing he  had  known  before ;  so  that  the  foun- 
dations were  laid  of  a  large  and  vigorous 
church  in  Ephesus,  and  Christianity  spread 
through  the  neighboring  towns, — reaching,  as 
we  afterwards  find,  even  without  St.  Paul's 


62  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

presence,  the  city  of  Colossae  on  the  verge  of  the 
province  of  Asia  (Col.  ii.  1 ;  Acts  xix.  10-20). 
Meanwhile,  the  a]30stle  was  watching  anx- 
iously the  course  of  affairs  in  the  churches  of 
Galatia  to  the  east,  and  of  Corinth  to  the  west 
beyond  the  ^gean.  Galatia  he  had  revisited 
on  his  recent  joui^ney  across  the  peninsula 
from  Antioch  (Acts  xviii.  22,  23,  xix.  1) ;  and 
he  discerned  already  symptoms  that  alarmed 
him,  of  a  tendency  towards  Jewish  ritualism, 
alien  from  the  spirit  of  the  gospel  (Gal.  i.  9). 
Troubles  of  another  kind  had  arisen  at  Cor- 
inth, in  reference  to  which  the  apostle  had 
written  a  letter,  brief  apparently  and  confined 
to  a  single  topic,  pre^dously  to  our  first  ex- 
tant epistle  (1  Ep.  V.  9).  We  gather  also  from 
1  and  2  Corinthians  that  St.  Paul  paid  a  sliort 
visit  to  Corinth  during  the  last  year  of  his 
residence  in  Ephesus  (57  a.d.) — "  a  year  ago," 
reckoning  from  the  time  of  his  journey  through 
Macedonia  (2  Ep.  ix.  2) — when  he  saw  distress- 
ing signs  of  disorder  and  imj)urity  in  the 
church  there,  and  severely  threatened  the 
offenders,  promising  to  return  before  long 
"  with  a  rod  "  if  the  cause  of  offence  were  not 
removed  (see  2  Ep.  xii.  20-xiii.  2,  also  ii.  1, 
xii.  14;  and  1  Ep.  iv.  18-21). 

The  Judaizing  movement,  so  pronounced  in 
Galatia,  had  its   representatives  in   Corinth 


THE   FOUR  EVANGELICAL  EPISTLES.  63 

also,  amongst  those  who  proclaimed,  "  I  am  of 
Cephas  "  (1  Ep.  i.  12).  This  church  contained 
many  conflicting  elements,  amidst  which  the 
first  epistle  reveals  two  opposite  currents — 
the  one  running  in  the  direction  of  license,  the 
other  of  legahsm.  In  the  interval  between  St. 
Paul's  writing  1  and  2  Corinthians,  the  party 
of  license  was  repressed;  but  the  Judaistic 
party  had  meanwhile  been  strengthened  and 
its  hostility  to  the  apostle  aggravated  and 
emboldened,  by  the  introduction  of  a  foreign 
influence,  whose  source  and  whose  working  it 
will  be  necessary  for  us  to  trace. 

The  Conflict  with  Peter. 

Previously  to  all  this,  an  event  occurred 
which  had,  as  we  believe,  a  very  close  con- 
nection with  the  troubles  in  Gralatia  and  Cor- 
inth— viz.,  the  collision  of  St  Paul  with  St 
Peter  at  Antioch  (G-al.  ii.  11-21).  This  was  a 
momentous  epoch  in  apostolic  history.  The 
whole  future  of  Christianity  was  involved  in 
it.  The  fact  that  the  contention  broke  out  at 
Antioch,  the  centre  and  mother  city  of  the 
Gentile  churches,  where  Barnabas  and  Paul, 
their  two  great  founders,  had  for  seven  years 
labored  side  by  side ;  and  that  the  entire  body 
of  the  liberal  Jewish  Christians*  there,  and 
"even  Barnabas,"  Paul's  earlier  leader  and 


64  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

almost  his  father  in  the  faith,  were  "carried 
away  "  by  the  Judaistic  agitation ;  and,  above 
all,  that  "Cephas"  lent  his  name  to  it,  the 
apostle  of  Pentecost,  who  was  far  and  away 
the  most  revered  and  influential  man  in  the 
whole  Church, — all  this  made  the  occasion  one 
of  extreme  gravity  and  peril.  Single  as  he 
stood,  Paul  resisted  the  entire  force  and  weight 
of  Jewish  opinion.  His  remonstrance  con- 
victed St.  Peter  of  "dissimulation,"  and  re- 
called him  to  his  own  better  principles.  But 
the  error  of  the  Jewish  apostle,  so  openly 
committed  and  so  well  calculated  to  encourage 
the  legalistic  party,  could  not  fail  to  have  dis- 
astrous consequences. 

The  public  reproof  of  Cephas,  on  whom  the 
Judaists  had  fixed  their  hopes,  drove  them  to 
desperate  measures;  indeed,  this  defeat  ran- 
kled for  a  hundred  years  in  the  breasts  of 
Jewish-Christian  heretics,  as  their  writings  in 
the  second  century,  the  so-called  Clementine 
Homilies  and  Eecognitions,  curiously  show. 
They  proceeded  now  to  carry  the  war  into  the 
enemy's  country.  They  made  their  way  to 
the  Pauline  churches,  where  doubtless  they 
found  sympathizers  amongst  their  country- 
men ;  and  they  brought  into  play  all  the  arts 
they  could  command  to  undermine  the  author- 
ity of  the  Gentile  apostle,  to  poison  the  minds 


THE   FOUR  EVANGELICAL   EPISTLES.  65 

of  Ms  converts,  and  to  graft  the  principles  of 
their  ovrn  Judaism  upon  the  faith  that  Gentile 
believers  had  received  from  his  lips.  Added 
to  all  his  other  dangers  and  trials,  the  apos- 
tle was  now  "  in  perils  among  false  brethren  " 
(2  Cor.  xi.  26). 

Emissaries  of  the  legalistic  party  were  fol- 
lowing on  Paul's  track,  setting  out  from  Jeru- 
salem and  claiming,  hke  those  "  certain  men 
from  James"  who  caused  the  mischief  at 
Antioch,  to  be  commissioned  from  the  moth- 
er church.  From  this  source  they  brought 
with  them  "letters  of  commendation";  but 
they  were  "  false  apostles,  deceitful  workers," 
preachers  of  "  another  gospel,"  teaching'  the 
G-entiles  to  be  circumcised  and  to  seek  salva- 
tion by  Jewish  ritual  and  works  of  law,  and 
"  making  the  cross  of  none  effect "  (2  Cor.  iii. 
1,  xi.  13 ;  aal.  i.  7,  v.  2,  11,  vi.  13).  We  shall 
be  able  to  trace  their  action  more  distinctly  in 
examining  the  Galatian  and  second  Corinthian 
letters ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  recognize  here 
at  the  outset  the  existence  and  activity  of 
the  anti-Pauline,  Judaistic  party,  if  we  are 
to  understand  the  position  in  which  St.  Paul 
found  himself  at  the  time  of  writing  these  four 
epistles,  and  the  condition  of  things  to  which 
they  were  addressed.  It  is  only  when  we  read 
in  his  letters  between  the  lines  the  arguments 


66  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

and  innuendoes  of  his  opponents,  that  we 
gather  the  full  force  of  his  reasonings,  his 
protestations  and  appeals.  These  are,  in  fact, 
the  epistles  of  the  Jadaistic  controversy^  written 
in  defence  and  vindication  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  cross.  They  guide  the  Church  along  the 
way  of  salvation  by  faith,  and  guard  her  from 
that  other  way  of  salvation  by  works  of  law, 
to  which  the  feet  of  her  children  are  ever  and 
again  in  peril  of  being  drawn  aside. 

This  was  the  great  controversy  of  Paul's 
life.  It  befell,  fortunately,  when  he  was  in 
the  vigor  and  maturity  of  his  powers ;  and  it 
stirred  the  very  depths  of  his  soul.  He  alone 
discerned  the  significance  of  the  crisis.  He 
understood  thoroughly  the  sort  of  men  he  had 
to  deal  with,  and  the  nature  of  their  principles 
and  methods;  for  he  had  been  educated  in 
their  own  school.  His  training  and  experience 
had  fitted  him  precisely  for  the  conflict  in 
which  he  was  engaged,  as  the  champion  of  the 
cross  and  of  Gentile  liberties.  The  Spirit  of 
God  came  mightily  upon  him ;  and  he  encoun- 
tered the  false  apostles  in  the  field  of  his  Gen- 
tile mission  with  the  same  prompt  courage 
and  irresistible  force  with  which  he  had 
already  reproved  the  vacillation  of  his  brother 
apostle  at  Antioch. 

The  manner  in  which  the  collision  between 


THE   FOUR  EVANGELICAL   EPISTLES.  67 

the  two  apostles  is  described  in  the  epistle  to 
the  G-alatians  shows  that  this  occurrence  had 
a  very  direct  bearing  on  the  controversy  car- 
ried on  in  the  Pauline  churches.  We  have 
assumed  (p.  23)  that  the  contention  occurred 
at  the  time  of  St.  Paul's  winter  sojourn  in 
Antioch  (54-55  a.d.),  immediately  before  he  set 
out  on  his  third  missionary  journey,  during 
the  course  of  which  the  Judaistic  agitation 
shook  the  Achaian  and  Galatian  churches. 
The  attempt  made  by  "  certain  from  James " 
to  forbid  Jewish  Christians  eating  with  the 
G-entiles,  when  looked  at  in  the  light  of  subse- 
quent events,  appears  to  have  been  the  open- 
ing of  a  new  campaign,  the  first  step  in  carry- 
ing out  a  systematic  plan  for  Judaizing  Gentile 
Christianity.  A  mission  was  set  on  foot  by 
the  legahsts  of  Jerusalem,  men  who  were  in 
reality  unconverted,  or  half-converted  Phari- 
sees, by  which  it  was  designed  to  bring  the 
Pauline  churches  under  the  yoke  of  the  Mo- 
saic covenant  and  incorporate  them  with  Israel 
after  the  flesh.  At  the  council  of  Jerusalem, 
in  the  year  51  (Acts  xv. ;  G-al.  ii.  1-10),  the 
legalists  sustained  a  crushing  defeat ;  and  they 
can  scarcely  have  dared  to  make  this  bold 
and  public  attack  on  the  liberal  Christianity 
of  Antioch,  until  some  considerable  time  had 
elapsed.     Still  less  likely  is  it  that  Peter,  and 


68  THE   EPISTLES    OF   PAUL. 

"  even  Barnabas,"  on  the  very  morrow  of  that 
decisive  vindication  of  G-entile  liberties,  in 
which  they  had  taken  so  conspicnons  and  gen- 
erous a  part,  were  "carried  away"  by  influ- 
ences proceeding  from  the  Judaistic  camp. 
Moreover,  St.  Luke,  in  Acts  xv.  30-41,  gives 
us  an  extended  account  of  what  took  place  at 
Antioch  after  the  council,  without  the  least 
intimation  that  St.  Peter  at  this  time  visited 
the  Syrian  capital.  But  on  the  occasion  of  St. 
Paul's  next  sojourn  at  Antioch,  when  he  com- 
pleted his  second  missionary  tour,  the  bare 
fact  is  related  of  his  arrival  and  his  continu- 
ance there  for  some  length  of  time  (Acts  xviii. 
22,  23) ;  so  that  nothing  stands  in  the  way  of 
our  supposing  the  visit  of  St.  Peter  to  Antioch, 
intimated  in  Gral.  ii.,  to  have  taken  place  at 
this  particular  time — in  the  interval  between 
the  second  and  third  missionary  journeys. 

Finally,  the  two  Thessalonian  epistles,  al- 
ready examined,  give  no  hint  of  any  Judaistic 
controversy  within  the  Church  between  the 
years  51  and  54,  antecedent  to  the  date  we  have 
arrived  at  for  the  renewed  outbreak  of  hos- 
tilities at  Antioch.  It  is  against  "  the  "  unbe- 
lieving and  persecuting  "Jews"  outside  the 
Church,  not  against  Judaizing  "false  breth- 
ren "  within  its  pale,  that  St.  Paul's  indigna- 
tion is  expressed  in  1  Thess.  ii.  14-16.    In  the 


THE   FOUE  EVANGELICAL  EPISTLES.  69 

first  group  of  letters,  the  apostle's  thoughts 
run  in  a  cMrection  very  different  from  that 
given  to  them  by  the  collision  with  Cephas  at 
Antioch :  they  have  not  yet  assumed  the  course 
which  we  find  them  pursuing  with  vehemence 
and  concentrated  energy  in  the  epistles  that 
lie  before  us.  "Evidently  the  apostle  had 
quitted  Jerusalem  (after  the  council  of  51  a.d.) 
and  undertaken  his  second  missionary  journey 
full  of  satisfaction  at  the  victory  he  had  gained, 
and  free  from  anxiety  for  the  future.  The 
decisive  moment  of  the  crisis,  therefore,  nec- 
essarily falls  between  the  Thessalonian  and 
G-alatian  epistles.  What  had  happened  in  the 
meantime?  The  violent  discussion  2vith  Peter 
at  Antioch  (Gal.  ii.  11-21),  and  all  that  this  in- 
cident reveals  to  us, — the  arrival  of  the  emis- 
saries from  James  in  the  Gentile  Christian 
circle,  the  counter-mission  organized  by  the 
Judaizers  to  rectify  the  work  of  Paul.  A  new 
situation  suddenly  presents  itseK  to  the  apos- 
tle on  his  return  from  his  second  missionary 
journey.  He  is  compelled  to  throw  himself 
into  the  struggle."  * 

*  Sdbatier :  "  The  Apostle  Paul :  a  Sketch  of  the  Develop- 
ment of  his  Doctrine."  The  delightful  work  of  M.  Sabatier, 
translated  from  the  French,  gives  a  graphic  picture  of  the 
events  and  movements  connected  with  this  momentous  crisis. 
The  writer  takes  this  opportunity  of  acknowledging  his  great 
indebtedness  to  Sabatier's  most  lucid  and  masterly  exposition 


70  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

It  is  to  the  crisis  brought  about  by  the  Jew- 
ish legahsts  and  the  enormous  peril  which  it 
involved,  a  peril  revealed  with  startling  effect 
by  the  "  dissimulation  "  of  Peter  and  Barnabas, 
that  we  owe  the  existence  of  this  group  of 
epistles  and  everything  distinctive  in  their 
character.  They  were  called  forth  by  a  great 
emergency.  They  are  a  monument  of  the 
emancipation  of  Christianity  from  Judaism. 
They  are  the  charter  of  the  rights  of  faith,  the 
witness  to  the  Divine  sonship  of  believers  and 
the  universal  heritage  of  mankind  in  Jesus 
Christ.  They  are  the  full  manifesto  and  ex- 
pression of  the  mind  of  the  apostle  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, and  of  the  mind  of  Christ  towards  the 
world  declared  through  him. 

Paul's  Apostleship  Disputed. 

With  the  doctrinal  question  at  issue  in  these 
epistles,  a  personal  question  was  deeply  in- 
volved— that  of  PaiiVs  apostolic  standing.  His 
Jewish  antagonists  attacked  his  policy  through 
himself.  His  authority  as  a  Christian  teacher, 
his  relations  with  the  primitive  Church  and  its 
chiefs — Cephas  in  particular — his  conduct  and 
management  in  the  Church,  even  his  infirmities 

of  St.  Paul's  teaching.  On  the  subject  of  the  Judaistic  agi- 
tation, he  may  also  refer  to  the  Expositor's  Bible  (Galatians), 
chaps,  vi.^x.,  where  it  is  fully  discussed. 


THE   FOUE  EVANGELICAL  EPISTLES.  71 

and  peculiarities  of  manner,  were  keenly  criti- 
cised. Every  weapon  was  used  against  liim 
that  spiteful  Jewish  ingenuity  could  suggest. 
Hence  2  Corinthians  and  Glalatians  contain 
an  extended  personal  defence — a  defence  con- 
ducted, however,  differently  in  the  two  letters, 
as  the  attack  in  these  distant  quarters  had 
assumed  a  different  form.  The  Judaistic  im- 
peachment, combined  with  the  disorders  of  the 
church  of  Corinth,  compelled  St.  Paul  to  the 
unqualified  assertion  of  his  apostolic  ofS.ce  and 
powers. 

The  three  "pillars"  at  Jerusalem,  he  tells 
us,  had  acknowledged  him  as  their  equal  at 
the  meeting  of  the  year  51 ;  they  recognized 
his  "  apostleship  unto  the  Gentiles  "  as  similar 
and  parallel  to  that  conferred  on  St.  Peter  in 
regard  to  the  Jews  (G-al.  ii.  7-10).  Yet  in  his 
subsequent  letters  to  the  Thessalonians  we 
hear  nothing  of  all  this.  "  Gentle  amongst " 
this  affectionate  people,  he  had  no  need  to  as- 
sert his  prerogative ;  and  in  vn.iting  to  them 
he  raises  himself  in  nowise  above  Silas  and 
Timothy,  who  possessed  in  common  with  him 
the  humbler  apostleship  that  belongs  to  all 
Christian  missionaries  (1  Thess.  ii.  6).  But 
there  is  need  now  for  something  more  than 
gentleness.  Throwing  aside  all  reserve,  the 
great  apostle  reveals  his  consciousness  of  the 


72  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

awful  powers  committed  to  Mm.  He  rises  to 
the  height  of  his  office;  he  makes  good  his 
claim  to  be  "  an  apostle  sent  not  of  men,  nor 
through  man,  but  through  Jesus  Christ,  and 
God  the  Father  who  raised  Him  from  the  dead." 
Yet,  in  this  height  of  Paul's  self-exaltation, 
his  deep  personal  humility  is  all  the  more 
apparent. 

Peactical  Topics  of  these  Epistles. 

Along  with  the  doctrinal  and  personal  topics, 
which  possess  such  absorbing  interest  in  these 
letters,  we  find  a  number  of  practical  questions 
arising  in  the  young  G-entile  Christian  com- 
munities, that  now  begin  to  press  upon  the 
apostle's  attention.  At  Corinth  the  leaven  of 
the  new  faith  had  seized  upon  keen  and  active 
minds  and  brought  within  its  influence  the 
most  diverse  elements ;  and  here  quite  a  num- 
ber of  difficulties,  ethical,  social,  and  ecclesias- 
tical— partly  internal,  partly  arising  from  the 
contact  of  Christianity  with  Pagan  and  Jewish 
society,  and  some  of  them  of  the  most  delicate 
nature — cropped  up  all  at  once.  And  the 
apostle  shows  himself  master  of  them  all.  No- 
where does  his  inspired  sagacity,  his  moral 
insight  and  practical  sense,  shine  with  more 
luminous  effect  than  in  1  Corinthians.  Well 
does  he  vindicate  his  own  saying,  "  The  spir- 


THE  FOUR  EVANGELICAL  EPISTLES.  73 

itnal  man  judgetli  all  things"  (1  Cor.  ii.  15). 
Through  this  epistle  we  view  as  in  a  mirror 
the  inner  life  and  proceedings  of  an  early  Chris- 
tian society ;  we  see  what  the  first  Gentile  con- 
verts were  like, — out  of  what  strange  material 
the  Church  was  created,  and  what  discordant 
and  intractable  natures  the  Spirit  of  Chi^ist  had 
undertaken  to  control  and  assimilate.  In  this 
epistle  also  we  detect  the  first  traces  of  the 
philosophical  and  rationalistic  ferment,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  Gnostic  heresies  of  the  follow- 
ing age.  This  influence  is  combated  in  its 
further  development  by  the  epistles  of  the 
third  group, — especially  Colossians. 

Genuineness  of  these  Epistles. 

The  letters  of  this  group  are  the  only  New 
Testament  writings  whose  authenticity  is  un- 
questioned by  modern  criticism.  Before  these 
writings,  scepticism  itself  makes  a  respectful 
pause :  so  vivid  and  intense  is  the  reality  that 
pervades  them ;  with  so  powerful  an  effect  has 
the  apostle  stamped  upon  them  his  personality 
and  the  impress  of  his  times.  Whatever  else 
may  be  doubted  or  denied,  no  one  can  reason- 
ably doubt  that  there  was  such  a  man  as  Paul 
the  apostle  of  Christ  Jesus,  and  that  he  wrote 
these  four  epistles,  within  thirty  years  of  his 
Master's    death,  to    Christian   societies   then 


74  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

existing  in  Asia  Minor,  Corinth,  and  Rome — 
all  but  the  last,  of  his  own  foundation.  Now 
this  is  an  historical  fact  of  immense  importance. 
For  these  four  letters  contain  all  the  vital  doc- 
trines of  the  gospel ;  they  presuppose,  directly 
or  indirectly,  the  essential  facts  touching  the 
life  and  teaching,  the  death  and  resurrection 
of  the  Lord  Jesus.  Without  a  Christ  such  as 
we  find  in  the  four  Gospels,  the  Paul  of  these 
four  epistles  is  unintelligible.  "It  pleased 
God,"  the  apostle  says,  "  to  reveal  His  Son  in 
me " — the  Son  of  God  and  Son  of  man  who 
stands  before  us  in  the  pages  of  SS.  Luke  and 
John ;  and  no  other  explanation  of  Paul's  his- 
tory— of  his  conversion,  of  his  character,  doc- 
trine and  achievements — has  been  given  that 
is  even  tolerably  plausible.  If  every  other 
witness  were  destroyed  or  discredited,  still 
these  documents  remain,  an  irrefutable  proof 
of  the  truth  and  saving  efficacy  of  the  gospel 
of  God  concerning  His  Son,  who  came  of 
David's  seed  in  respect  of  flesh,  but  in  respect 
of  His  spirit  of  holiness  was  marked  out  a 
Son  of  God  by  His  resurrection  from  the  dead  " 
(Rom.  i.  1-4).  Given  the  Paul  of  Romans, 
Corinthians,  and  Galatians,  and  strict  logic  and 
historical  criticism  compel  us  to  accept  the 
Jesus  of  the  Evangelists.  Such  an  effect  as 
these  letters  set  before  us,  demands  an  ade- 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELICAL   EPISTLES.  75 

quate  cause.  The  only  cause  that  can  conceiv- 
ably account  for  what  St.  Paul  was,  for  what 
he  has  done  and  written,  is  "  Jesus  Christ,  yes- 
terday and  to-day  the  same, — and  forever." 
He  alone  is  the  author  of  such  faith ;  and  He 
will  be  its  finisher. 

On  the  other  side,  we  may  argue  from  the 
admitted  genuineness  of  these  documents  to 
the  authorship  of  the  rest  of  the  Pauline 
epistles.  Indeed,  they  supply  us  with  a  means 
of  testing,  more  or  less  completely,  the  date 
and  character  of  the  New  Testament  writings 
generally.  So  successfully  has  this  line  of 
demonstration  been  prosecuted  that,  while  fifty 
years  ago  the  rationalistic  school  dominant  in 
Germany  allowed  but  four  epistles  to  be  the 
genuine  products  of  St.  Paul's  pen,  there  are 
now  only  four  remaining,  out  of  the  thirteen 
bearing  his  name  (viz.,  Ephesians  and  the  three 
Pastorals),  which  the  present  leaders  of  that 
party  unite  in  rejecting ;  and  the  three  s^niop- 
tic  Gospels,  at  that  time  so  confidently  referred 
to  the  second  century,  are  to-day  very  gener- 
ally admitted  to  have  appeared  before  the  end 
of  the  first. 

It  is  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  importance 
which  belongs  to  these  four  epistles  in  the  de- 
fence and  confirmation  of  the  gospel — alike  in 
face  of  sacerdotal  and  Eomish  perversions  and 


76  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

of  rationalistic  denials  of  its  truth.  They  fur- 
nish us  with  an  impregnable  fortress  of  our 
faith,  planted  in  the  midst  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  and  they  supply  a  fixed  starting-point 
and  indubitable  test  for  the  examination  of  all 
questions  touching  the  origin  and  nature  of 
Christianity,  and  the  history  of  the  apostolic 
age. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  FIKST  TO  THE  COKINTHIANS. 

The  first  to  the  Corinthians  was,  in  all  prob- 
ability, the  earliest  of  the  four  major  epistles. 
It  has  been  generally  supposed  that  the  letter 
to  the  Galatians  came  first  in  order  of  time. 
We  shall  see  reason  for  placing  it  rather  be- 
tween 2  Corinthians  and  Eomans ;  and  its  con- 
nection with  the  last-named  is  so  close  and 
intimate,  in  order  of  thought,  that  even  if  the 
earlier  date  were  established,  it  would  still  be 
desirable  for  interpretation  to  put  these  two 
writings  side  by  side.  We  shall,  therefore, 
first  discuss  the  two  Corinthian  epistles,  then 
in  turn  Glalatians  and  Romans. 

Date  and  Occasion  of  1  Cokinthians. 

The  apostle's  sojourn  at  Ephesus  is  drawing 
to  a  close.  Easter  is  approaching  (58  a.d.),  and 
he  expects  to  stay  in  the  Asiatic  capital  until 
Pentecost,  where  "  a  great  and  effectual  door  " 
is  opened  to  him  (1  Ep.  v.  8,  xvi.  8,  9).  After 
Pentecost  he  proposes  travelling  to  Macedonia 
and  devoting  the  summer  to  that  province, 
then  coming  on  to  Corinth  and  spending  the 

77 


78  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

ensuing  winter  there  (ch.  xvi.  1-9),  after  that 
setting  out  to  Jerusalem.  Such  is  his  pro- 
gramme for  the  year.  He  had  previously  in- 
tended to  come  direct  to  Corinth  from  Eph- 
esus,  and  pay  the  Corinthian  church  a  flying 
visit  before  commencing  his  summer  work  in 
Macedonia  (2  Ep.  i.  15,  16).  This  purpose  he 
has  abandoned,  for  reasons  that  will  after- 
wards appear  (2  Ep.  i.  23,  xii.  20,  21). 

Meanwhile,  he  has  sent  Timothy  on  the  way 
to  Corinth,  by  Macedonia,  along  with  a  certain 
Erastus  (1  Ep.  iv.  17 ;  Acts  xix.  22).  He  sup- 
poses that  Timothy  will  arrive  shortly  after 
the  letter,  and  will  be  able  to  supplement  its 
contents.  But  it  was  possible  he  might  be 
hindered  or  delayed — St.  Paul  writes,  "  If  he 
come"  (ch.  xvi.  10) — and  so  indeed  it  turned 
out.  For  in  the  second  epistle,  which  Paul 
writes  from  Macedonia  with  Timothy  by  his 
side  (ch.  i.  1),  not  a  word  is  said  of  Timothy's 
mission  to  Corinth  or  of  any  news  brought  by 
him  to  the  apostle  (contrast  with  this  1  Thess. 
iii.  6-8) ;  St.  Paul's  mind  is  full  of  Titus'  com- 
ing, and  of  what  Titus  has  told  him  of  the  state 
of  affairs  at  Corinth  (2  Ep.  ii.  13,  vii.  5-16). 
Clearly  it  was  Titus,  and  not  Timothy,  who 
actually  went  to  Corinth.  Finding,  after  he 
had  written  this  letter,  that  Timothy  would  be 
unable  to  reach  Corinth  in  time,  or  perhaps 


THE  FIRST   TO   THE   COEINTHIANS.  79 

fearing  that  Timothy's  gentle  nature  would 
prove  unequal  to  encounter  the  turbulent 
Corinthians  (see  1  Ep.  xvi.  10,  11),  the  apostle 
despatched  Titus  instead, — to  "  remind  "  them 
"  of  his  ways  in  Christ "  (eh.  iv.  17),  to  report 
to  him  on  the  condition  of  the  church  and  the 
effect  of  the  epistle  just  sent,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  expedite  the  collection  for  Jerusalem 
already  commenced  in  Achaia  (2  Ep.  ix.  2), 
which  St.  Paul  wishes  to  see  completed  in 
preparation  for  his  visit  to  the  holy  city  (1  Ep. 
xvi.  1-6). 

This  contribution  in  aid  of  "  the  poor  of  the 
saints  "  at  Jerusalem  is  mentioned  or  alluded 
to  in  all  the  letters  of  this  period  (Rom.  xv. 
25-29;  comp.  Acts  xxiv.  17;  and,  probably, 
Gal.  ii.  10,  vi.  7-10).  We  are  told  in  2  Ep. 
viii.  6  that  Titus  took  a  special  interest  in  this 
work  of  charity,  arising  perhaps  from  the  fact 
that  he  had  been  with  Paul  at  Jerusalem  some 
years  before  (G-al.  ii.  1),  and  therefore  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  necessities  of  the  Christian 
poor  in  that  city. 

Previous  to  the  despatch  of  our  first  extant 
epistle,  there  had  been  a  good  deal  of  com- 
munication between  St.  Paul  and  Corinth,  the 
course  of  which  we  cannot,  however,  make 
out  with  certainty.  From  2  Ep.  xii.  14  and 
xiii.  1,  2  ("This  third  time  I  am  coming"),  we 


80  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

infer  that  he  had  liimself  visited  the  Corinthian 
church  not  very  long  ago,  when  he  was  grieved 
and  humbled  exceedingly  by  the  moral  laxity, 
the  strife,  disorder,  and  insolence  that  he  wit- 
nessed amongst  its  members  (2  Ep.  xii.  20, 
21).  It  is  possible  that  we  have  a  hint  of  the 
time  of  this  visit  in  2  Ep.  ix.  2,  where  the 
words  "  a  year  ago,"  if  referring  to  the  apos- 
tle's presence  in  "Achaia,"  indicate  the  sum- 
mer or  autumn  of  57  as  the  date  of  his  ex- 
cursion from  Ephesus. 

This  trip  to  Corinth  made  but  a  brief  inter- 
ruption in  his  labors  in  Asia,  and  is  therefore 
unrecorded  in  the  Acts ;  but  it  left  a  deep  and 
saddening  impression  on  the  apostle's  mind. 
He  took  no  judicial  action  against  the  offend- 
ers at  the  time,  contenting  himself  with  hear- 
ing "the  word  of  those  that  are  puffed  up" 
(for  to  this  occasion  we  think  he  alludes  in 
1  Ep.  iv.  19),  and  warning  them  of  the  punish- 
ment that  would  ensue  if  on  his  return  in  the 
next  spring  he  found  them  unrepentant  (2  Ep. 
xiii.  2).  This  forbearance  some  of  his  oppo- 
nents put  down  to  weakness  on  his  part, — an 
impression  that  he  fears  may  be  aggravated 
by  the  present  delay  in  his  coming,  and  which 
in  both  epistles  he  earnestly  strives  to  remove 
(1  Ep.  iv.  18-21 ;  2  Ep.  i.  17-ii.  1),  promising 
his  defiers,  who  asked  for  "  a  proof  of  Christ 


THE   FIEST   TO   THE   COEINTHIANS.  81 

speaking  in  him"  (2  Ep.  xiii.  2,  3),  that  their 
wish  would  shortly  be  gratified.  The  ante- 
cedent visit,  whose  occurrence  we  learn  from 
the  second  epistle,  helps  to  explain  the  situa- 
tion in  which  St.  Paul  finds  himself  towards 
the  Corinthians  in  writing  the  first,  and  the 
full  knowledge  of  their  condition  which  the 
letter  manifests. 

Not  only  had  St.  Paul  been  in  Corinth  a  few 
months  before  this  time,  he  had  also  ivritten 
to  the  church  there  a  letter^  probably  in  con- 
sequence of  his  visit;  and  to  this  letter  he 
refers  in  1  Ep.  v.  9,  "I  wrote  to  you  in  my 
letter  not  to  be  mixed  up  with  fornicators." 
The  single  reference  made  to  it  suggests  that 
this  was  a  brief,  peremptory  note,  directing 
the  church  to  purge  itself  from  fellowship 
with  unchaste  men.  Its  purport,  however, 
was  misunderstood,  so  that  St.  Paul  has  to  ex- 
plain and  qualify  it  in  1  Ep.  v.  9-13.  It  is  con- 
jectured that  we  have,  after  all,  a  paragraph 
of  the  earlier  lost  letter  in  2  Ep.  vi.  14-vii.  1, 
that  has  somehow  slipped  into  this  place. 
This  passage  very  much  interrupts  the  con- 
nection of  thought  where  we  find  it  in  2  Co- 
rinthians, and  it  is  well  suited  to  the  purpose 
of  the  letter  alluded  to  in  1  Cor.  v.  The  Co- 
rinthians received  this  authoritative  note  from 
St.  Paul,  but  had  not  as  yet  acted  upon  it. 


82  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

The  doubt  raised  as  to  its  meaning  suj)plied 
an  excuse  for  delay.  In  explaining  this  by 
letter  to  the  apostle,  they  addressed  to  him  at 
the  same  time  a  number  of  inquiries,  with 
which  he  deals  consecutively  in  chaps,  vii.-xii. 
Three  esteemed  members  of  the  Corinthian 
church — Stephanas,  Fortunatus,  and  Achaicus 
— had  also  arrived  at  Ephesus.  They  came 
seemingly  as  a  deputation,  bringing  with  them 
the  above  letter,  and  wishful  to  reassure  the 
anxious  apostle  as  to  the  feeling  of  the  Corin- 
thians towards  him  (1  Ep.  xvi.  17,  18).  Un- 
fortunately, about  the  same  time,  he  heard 
from  another  source,  "  by  those  of  the  house 
of  Chloe  "  (ch.  i.  11),  tidings  which  revived  his 
worst  fears.  The  strifes  he  had  witnessed 
with  so  much  sorrow  had  broken  out  still 
more  violently;  indeed,  they  threatened  to 
bring  about  the  speedy  disruption  of  the 
church.  x\mid  the  general  rivalry  and  con- 
fusion, four  separate  factions  were  distin- 
guished. There  were  the  Judaists — destined 
to  play  an  important  part  in  the  later  de- 
velopment of  affairs — who  said,  "I  am  of 
Cephas."  The  Apollos  party,  admirers  of  the 
eloquent  Alexandrine  preacher,  who  had  made 
a  great  impression  at  Corinth  since  St.  Paul's 
first  mission  there,  but  who  was  now  at 
Ephesus  with  the  apostle  (Acts  xix.  1 ;  1  Ep. 


THE   FIEST   TO   THE   CORINTHIANS.  83 

xvi.  12)  and  unwilling  at  present  to  return: 
these  boasted  themselves  men  of  culture  and 
philosophic  breadth ;  they  missed  in  the  apos- 
tle's discourse  the  "  excellency  of  speech  and 
of  wisdom  "  with  which  ApoUos  had  gratified 
them  (1  Ep.  ii.  1 ;  2  Ep.  xi.  6).  Nor  did  Paul 
lack  vigorous  asserters  of  his  superiority,  men 
devoted  to  evangelic  faith  and  freedom,  whose 
championship,  however,  was  maintained  with 
a  party  spirit  highly  distasteful  to  him.  Even 
the  name  of  Christ  was  dragged  into  these 
wretched  competitions.  There  was  a  Chris- 
tian party,  as  jealous  and  disputatious  as  the 
rest,  who  set  themselves  above  their  brethren 
in  claiming  to  be  the  true  followers  of  Jesus, 
disparaging  all  other  names  and  all  earthly 
authority  in  the  pride  of  saying,  "I  am  of 
Christ"  (ver.  12). 

In  the  feuds  and  embroilments  of  these  fac- 
tions the  disorders  of  the  Corinthian  church 
came  to  a  head;  and  to  this  contention  St. 
Paul  directs  his  first  expostulations.  For  the 
present,  the  Apolline  party  was  that  which 
gave  him  most  concern ;  and  to  them  chaps. 
i.-iv.  are  mainly  addressed  (observe  that  Ajjol- 
los^  name  occurs  six  times  in  these  chapters). 
To  their  philosophical  bias  was  due  the  disbe- 
lief in  a  bodily  resurrection,  which  the  apostle 
combats  in  chap.  xv. ;  and  the  magnifying  of 


84  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

"  knowledge "  and  intellectnal  gifts,  which  he 
corrects  by  his  exaltation  of  "charity"  in 
chaps,  viii.  1-8  and  xiii.  From  members  of 
this  party  also  proceeded  the  disparagement 
of  Paul  himself,  the  contempt  of  his  power 
and  ingratitude  for  his  services,  against  which 
he  asserts  himself  with  pathetic  dignity  in  the 
early  pages  of  the  letter. 

Amongst  the  cases  of  immorality  that  had 
occurred  in  this  church  (2  Ep.  xii.  21),  there 
was  one  of  an  especially  shameful  nature,  re- 
specting which  St.  Paul  has  now  received  in- 
formation that  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  as  to 
the  facts  (ch.  v.  1).  The  church  appeared  to 
be  little  sensible  of  the  disgrace  thus  brought 
upon  it  (ver.  2).  Instead  of  taking  immedi- 
ate action,  according  to  the  tenor  of  Paul's  in- 
structions, it  had  temporized,  writing  to  him 
in  self-complacent  terms,  and  requesting  fur- 
ther explanation  of  his  meaning.  Manifestly, 
it  was  in  no  haste  to  remov^  the  vicious  leaven. 
He  demands  indignantly  a  prompt  and  sum- 
mary judgment  of  the  case,  so  that  before  the 
approaching  passover  the  church  may  be 
purged  of  the  profligate's  defiling  presence 
(ch.  V.  3-13). 

This  case  of  discipline  was  a  crucial  matter. 
Had  the  Corinthians  refused  obedience,  the 
apostle  would  feel  that  he  had  lost  all  authority 


THE  FIRST   TO   THE   COEINTHIANS.  85 

over  tliem,  and  that  his  work  at  Corinth  was 
ruined.  This  disastrous  issue  there  was  too 
much  reason  to  apprehend.  It  was  therefore 
"out  of  anguish  of  heart  and  many  tears" 
that  he  wrote  the  sharp  reproofs  and  stern 
condemnation  which  we  read  in  chaps,  iv.-vi. 
If  this  letter  fail  to  rouse  their  conscience  and 
bring  them  to  order  and  right  feeling,  he  must 
count  the  Corinthian  church  as  lost ;  he  will 
be  himself  bereaved  of  children  who,  with  all 
their  faults,  were  very  dear  to  him;  and  a 
blow  will  be  inflicted  on  the  kingdom  of  Christ, 
the  more  severe  because  of  the  number  and 
extraordinary  gifts  of  this  community,  and 
because  of  the  unique  position  of  Corinth  as 
the  capital  of  G-reece,  and  the  stepping-stone 
from  east  to  west,  from  Antioch  to  Eome. 

Looking  at  matters  in  this  light,  we  can  en- 
ter into  the  conflicting  emotions  under  which 
the  apostle  wrote  this  letter  and  the  anxiety 
with  which  he  awaited  its  result,  as  they  ap- 
pear from  his  subsequent  references  in  2  Ep. 
ii.  4,  12,  13  and  vii.  5-9.  When  the  danger 
was  over,  he  allowed  expression,  in  the  second 
epistle,  to  these  feelings  of  distress.  In  the 
first  epistle  he  bears  himself  with  perfect  self- 
control,  with  the  calm  and  firm  courage  of  the 
pilot  at  the  height  of  the  storm.  Chap.  v.  was, 
in  effect,  PaitPs  ultimatum  to  Corinth. 


86  the  epistles  of  paul. 

Chaeactee  and  Scope  of  the  Epistle. 

There  are  two  important  links  between  the 
Thessalonian  and  first  Corinthian  epistles — 
the  subject  of  tlie  parousia  (comp.  1  Thess.  iv. 
13-18  and  1  Cor.  xv.),  and  that  of  the  sanctity 
of  the  body  (comp.  1  Thess.  iv.  1-8  with  1  Cor. 
vi.  12-20).  But  in  passing  from  those  letters 
to  this,  we  are  conscious  of  a  great  enlarge- 
ment of  our  field  of  view.  The  Thessalonian  s 
were  like  men  fighting  their  way  through  some 
defile  amidst  a  host  of  enemies,  who  see  only 
at  the  end  of  the  pass  the  sky  before  them 
bright  with  the  coming  of  their  Saviour.  But 
now  we  have  issued  into  a  wider  region.  The 
dawn  of  Christ's  advent  still  shines  in  the 
heaven,  and  hope  counts  "the  time"  but 
"short"  till  His  appearing  (ch.  vii.  29).  Yet, 
if  short,  it  is  a  time  of  eager  and  manifold 
activity;  and  the  scene  is  one  in  which  the 
powers  and  passions  of  human  life  are  brought 
into  full  play. 

Amongst  the  great  provincial  cities  of  the 
Empire,  Corinth  was  the  most  central,  and 
was  alfected  by  all  the  various  currents  of 
the  age.  Standing  on  Grecian  soil,  it  was  a 
Eoman  colony,  refounded  by  Julius  Caesar  in 
46  B.C.,  the  seat  of  Eoman  government  and  of 
Greek  commerce.  For  profligacy  this  city  had 
an  infamous  notoriety.    Here  vice  was  raised 


THE  FIEST   TO   THE   CORINTHIANS.  87 

into  a  religion ;  and  the  "  idolaters  "  of  Corinth 
are  fitly  set  between  "  fornicators  "  and  "  adul- 
terers" (ch.  vi.  9).  From  the  filthiest  slough 
of  sin  Paul's  converts  at  Corinth  were  ex- 
tracted (1  Ep.  vi.  9-11).  Not  even  at  Antioch 
had  he  seen  the  condition  of  the  Gentile  world 
— its  pride  and  power,  its  fancied  wisdom,  its 
utter  depravity  and  godlessness — displayed  so 
vividly.  It  was  from  Corinth  that  he  wrote 
the  first  chapter  of  the  epistle  to  the  Eomans, 
describing  what  was  there  before  his  eyes. 
At  first,  we  can  imagine,  he  was  staggered 
by  the  awful  wickedness  of  Corinth.  To  this, 
along  with  other  causes,  we  may  attribute  the 
"  weakness  and  fear  and  much  trembling "  in 
which  his  ministry  there  commenced  (ch.  ii.  3). 
It  was  under  these  circumstances,  contem- 
plating human  guilt  in  its  extreme  and  most 
revolting  form,  that  the  sacrifice  of  Christ 
revealed  itself  to  him  with  new  power  as  the 
all-sufficient  remedy  for  sin.  He  marks  his 
arrival  at  Corinth  as  an  event  in  his  history, 
the  occasion  of  a  memorable  resolve :  "I  de- 
termined not  to  know  anything  among  you, 
save  Jesus  Christ,  and  Him  crucified  "  (ch.  ii.  2). 
The  temptation  may  have  come  to  him  at 
Athens,  and  amongst  "  the  Greeks  "  that  "  seek 
after  wisdom,"  to  adopt  a  more  philosophical 
style  of  teaching,  such  as  that  in  which  Apol- 


88  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

los  afterwards  excelled ;  but  if  such  thoughts 
did  occur,  he  put  them  quickly  aside,  and 
determined  now  more  than  ever  to  make  the 
cross  the  centre  of  his  aims,  the  glory  and 
power  of  all  his  ministry  to  sinful  men. 

Centeal  Peinciple  of  the  Epistle. 

In  "the  word  of  the  cross"  (ch.  i.  17,  18) 
we  find  the  principle  which  underlies  the 
teaching  of  this  epistle,  and  binds  together  its 
varied  and  divergent  topics.  From  that  fount- 
ain, now  opened  for  the  apostle's  mind  to  its 
very  depths,  flows  the  rich  and  powerful 
stream  of  thought  that  pours  through  these 
pages.  The  word  (or  doctrine)  of  the  cross 
includes,  of  course,  that  of  the  resurrection, 
of  the  new  life  and  the  believer's  mystic  union 
with  Christ  crucified  and  risen — in  fact,  the 
entire  theology  which  the  apostle  is  about  to 
expound  in  writing  to  the  Eomans,  which  is 
all  conveyed  by  implication  here.  It  is,  in 
truth,  from  the  summit  of  Calvary  that  the 
many  subjects  are  considered  which  come 
under  review  in  1  and  2  Corinthians.  In  the 
piercing  light  of  the  cross  the  manifold  prob- 
lems of  life  are  surveyed.  Greek  wisdom  and 
Corinthian  vice,  church  parties,  spiritual  gifts 
and  their  abuse,  great  social  questions,  such 
as  marriage  and  slavery,  lighter  matters  of  diet 


THE   FIEST   TO   THE   COKINTHIANS.  89 

and  of  dress, — all  are  discussed  in  their  bear- 
ing on  the  relationship  of  men  to  Christ,  and 
upon  principles  deduced  from  the  word  of  the 
cross. 

In  this  we  recognize  the  characteristic  mark 
of  this  book  of  the  New  Testament.  It  is  the 
epistle  of  the  doctrine  of  the  cross  in  application. 
Amongst  the  four  evangelical  epistles  it  holds 
a  place  in  the  practical  sphere  similar  to  that 
of  Romans  in  the  theoretical  and  theological. 
In  the  latter  writing,  the  apostle  does  but 
reason  out  and  demonstrate  the  principle  on 
which  he  has  already  acted  with  success,  in 
dealing  with  the  ethical  problems  and  violent 
conflicts  of  the  church  at  Corinth.  In  the 
practical  world  the  gospel  begins  by  winning 
its  decisive  victories,  which  are  then  completed 
in  the  region  of  theory  and  scientific  doctrine. 
It  gives  life  first,  then  the  philosophy  of  life. 
In  1  Corinthians  it  proves  itself  the  "  power 
of  G-od  " ;  in  Eomans  it  will  prove  itself  equally 
"God's  wisdom."  This  order  is  the  reverse 
of  that  we  might  anticipate ;  but  it  is  God's 
way,  and  the  order  of  salvation. 

Besides  the  special  difficulties  arising  from 
the  state  of  the  Corinthian  church — from  its 
party  strife,  its  intellectual  pride  and  love  of 
display,  and  its  laxity  of  conscience  in  regard 
to   sexual  sin — ^there  were   other  questions. 


90  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

belonging  to  the  new  Christian  society  at 
large,  which  emerged  in  the  active  life  of  this 
chnrch  and  called  for  settlement  at  this  junct- 
ure ;  questions  partly  internal  to  the  church, 
and  arising  from  the  communion  of  Jews  and 
Grentiles  within  it,  partly  arising  from  the 
contact  of  Christians  with  heathen  or  Jewish 
society  outside.  There  was,  for  example,  the 
dispute  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  eating  flesh 
that  had  been  offered  in  sacrifice  to  idols,  and 
of  sitting  at  the  table  of  idolaters;  the  pro- 
priety of  resorting  to  heathen  tribunals ;  the 
moral  value  of  celibacy ;  the  place  of  women 
in  Christian  assemblies;  the  rule  of  expedi- 
ency in  the  use  of  things  lawful ;  the  relative 
worth  of  the  various  kinds  of  spiritual  gifts. 
These  matters — some  of  them  of  the  most  del- 
icate and  controversial  nature — are  treated 
with  admirable  penetration  and  good  sense,  in 
a  manner  calculated  to  impress  the  intelligent 
Corinthians  with  profound  respect  for  the 
apostle's  wisdom.  But  it  is  the  doctrine  of 
the  cross  from  which  he  draws  this  wisdom. 
Here  is  'Hhe  master  light  of  all  his  seeing." 
From  it  he  learns  the  subservience  of  the 
material  to  the  spiritual,  and  its  glorification 
by  the  spiritual.  The  sacrifice  of  Christ  sup- 
plies the  power  by  which  knowledge  is  yoked 
to  the  service  of  love,  and  selfish  instincts  are 


THE  FIEST   TO   THE   CORINTHIANS.  91 

subordinated  to  the  common  good.  The  well- 
being  of  society,  the  right  ordering  of  all 
human  affairs,  lies  in  the  application  of  these 
principles,  of  which  St.  Paul,  next  to  Jesus 
Christ,  is  our  greatest  teacher.  This  epistle 
furnishes  lessons  in  the  doctrine  of  the  cross 
that  are  of  universal  import  and  apposite  to 
the  needs  of  every  age. 

Analysis  of  the  Epistle. 

This  epistle,  we  must  remember,  is  a  thor- 
oughly practical  one.  Its  topics  were  supplied 
by  the  defects  and  disorders  of  the  Corinthian 
church.  These  are  known  to  the  apostle  from 
two  sources :  (1)  Through  the  letter  lately  sent 
to  li'mi  hj  the  church.  To  this  he  expressly 
replies  in  chap.  vii.  1 ;  and  probably  the  mat- 
ters taken  up  in  succession  in  chaps,  viii.  1, 
xii.  1,  and  xvi.  1 — all  introduced  in  similar 
fashion — were  brought  before  the  apostle  by 
the  epistle  of  the  church.  From  this  letter 
we  conjecture  that  Paul  is  quoting  in  chap, 
xi.  2,  where  he  says,  "  I  praise  you,  in  that  (as 
you  say)  you  remember  me  in  all  things,  and 
are  holding  fast  the  instructions  I  gave  you." 
In  view  of  what  follows,  and  of  the  general 
tenor  of  the  epistle,  we  can  hardly  account  for 
such  a  commendation  otherwise.  Chap.  v.  2 
expressly  says  that  the  Corinthians  were  too 


92  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

well  pleased  with  themselves ;  and  the  irony 
of  chap.  iv.  8-10,  also  iv.  17,  shows  that  they 
did  not  sufficiently  remember  Paul's  "  ways  in 
Christ." 

The  epistle  is  further  based  (2)  on  reports 
St.  Paul  had  received,  outside  the  above  letter, 
of  the  state  of  things  at  Corinth.  Chaps,  i.-vi. 
deal  mainly  with  these  matters  of  report; 
chaps,  vii.-xvi.,  as  we  suppose,  with  the  ques- 
tions raised  in  the  aforesaid  letter.  There  are 
later  allusions  to  the  damaging  reports  in 
chap.  xi.  18 ;  probably  also  in  chap.  xv.  12,  33, 
34,  and  elsewhere.  From  his  own  recent  visit 
(to  which,  however,  he  makes  no  open  ref- 
erence), and  from  information  supplied  by 
Apollos,  who  had  crossed  over  to  Ephesus 
shortly  before,  St.  Paul  would  gather  addi- 
tional "material  for  this  letter. 

The  epistle  being  thus  altogether  objective 
and  the  product  of  the  occasion,  is  of  a  desul- 
tory character.  It  does  not  lend  itself  readily 
to  analysis.  We  divide  it  into  the  following 
sections : 

Salutation  and  Thanksgiving,  chap.  i.  1-9. 

Paul  gives  thanks  for  the  rich  spiritual  en- 
dowments of  this  church,  and  declares  his  con- 
fidence that  God  will  perfect  the  work  of  grace 
in  them. 


THE  FIRST   TO   THE   CORINTHIANS.  93 

§  1.  Concerning  the  divisions^  chap.  i.  10- 

iv.  21: 

especially  that  between  the  self-styled  parties  of  Paul  and 
Apollos;  and  its  causes,— lying  in  fondness  for  eloquence 
and  affectation  of  philosophy.  Hence  Paul  denounces  (not 
in  Apollos,  but  in  his  followers)  :  (1)  wisdom  of  words^  in 
contrast  with  the  Divine  folly  of  the  cross,  ch.  i.  18-ii.  16  ; 
and  (2)  glorying  in  men,  by  contrast  with  glorying  in  the 
Lord,  chaps,  iii.,  iv.  Throughout  this  reproof  there  runs 
(3^  a  continuous  vindication  by  the  apostle  of  his  own 
method  as  a  Christian  teacher,  and  his  claims  on  the  Co- 
rinthians as  their  spiritual  father. 

§  2.  Concerning  the  case  of  incest^  chaps,  v. 
and  vi.  12-20 : 

(1)  He  bids  the  offender  be  "delivered"  for  bodily  pun- 
ishment "to  Satan,"  and  this  foul  leaven  purged  out  of 
the  church,  ch.  v.  1-8.  (2)  He  repeats  more  distinctly 
his  former  direction  to  excommunicate  immoral  persons, 
vv.  9-13.  (3)  He  returns,  in  ch.  vi.  12-20,  to  the  subject 
of  sexual  sin  ;  distinguishing  between  questions  of  expedi- 
ency, such  as  that  of  "meats" — and  those  oi  fundamental 
morals,  such  as  that  of  "fornication,"  against  which  he 
launches  a  solemn  interdict. 

§  3.  Concerning  the  use  by  Christians  of 
heathen  law-courts^  chap.  vi.  1-11 : 

From  the  connection  in  which  this  matter  is  introduced, 
it  appears  to  have  been  mixed  up  with  the  last.  Probably 
the  affairs  of  the  family,  polluted  by  the  crime  just  referred 
to,  had  in  some  way  come  before  the  civil  magistrates. 

§  4.  Concerning  expedience  of  celibacy^  chap, 
vii. : 


94  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Here  we  must  distinguish  between  advice  and  command, 
also  between  that  which  belongs  to  universal  Christian  law 
and  what  was  dictated  by  the  circumstances  of  the  time. 
In  vv.  17-24  reference  is  made  to  other  callings  in  life 
besides  marriage,  especially  the  state  of  slavery. 

%  5.  Concerning  meats  offered  to  idols,  chaps, 
viii.-x. : 

A  thorny  subject,  touching  the  social  life  of  the  church 
in  various  ways.  The  apostle  says  (1)  that  the  difficulty 
is  to  be  solved  by  love,  not  by  mere  knowledge,  ch.  viii. 

(2)  He  brings  to  bear  upon  it  his  own  example  in  matters 
morally  indifferent,  ch.  ix., — intimating  that  in  theory  he 
was  for  freedom,  but  in  practice  for  self-denying  strictness. 

(3)  He  vrarns  the  Corinthians  against  idolatrous  feasts  : 
{a)  by  tlie  history  of  ancient  Israel,  in  ch.  x.  1-14  ; 
(6)  the  sacredness  of  the  Lord''s  supper,  vv.  15-22. 

(4)  Explicit  directions  on  the  subject  follow,  in  ch.  x.  23- 
xi.  1. 

§  6.  Concerning  certain  disorders  in  public 
worship,  chap.  xi.  2-34 : 

(1)  The  indecorous  behavior  of  women,  vv.  2-16 ;  (2) 
the  profanation  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  whose  origin  and 
spiritual  import  he  sets  forth  in  vv.  17-34. 

§  7.  Concerning  the  exercise  of  spiritual  gifts, 
chaps,  xii.-xiv. : 

(1)  The  nature  of  these  manifold  gifts  is  set  forth,  and 
their  varied  use  illustrated,  by  the  figure  of  the  body  and 
its  members,  ch.  xii.  (2)  Prophecy  is  extolled  as  superior 
in  usefulness  to  the  more  admired  gift  of  tongues,  ch.  xiv. 
1-25.     (3)  Directions  given  for  their  orderly  and  seemly 


THE   FIKST   TO   THE   CORINTHIANS.  95 

exercise  in  the  church  meetings,  vv.  26-40.  (4)  In  the 
midst  of  this  section  the  apostle  delivers,  by  the  way,  his 
wonderful  encMmium  upon  love  (or  charity)^  which  he  ex- 
alts above  all  miraculous  gifts,  above  knowledge,  and  even 
above  faith  and  hope,  eh.  xiii. 

'^  8.  Concerning  the  resurrection  of  the  hody^ 
chap.  XV. : 

This  subject  the  apostle  has  reserved  till  the  last.  He 
discusses  it  with  fulness  and  solemnity,  discerning  in  the 
speculative  unbelief  that  had  arisen  at  Corinth  respecting 
it  a  new  and  profound  peril  to  the  Christian  faith.  This 
is  the  one  doctrinal  section  of  the  epistle.  It  has  no  direct 
connection  with  the  foregoing  topics  (but  see  ch.  vi.  13,  14). 
Paul  shows  :  (1)  that  denial  of  bodily  resurrection  involves 
denial  of  Christ's  resurrection,  and  so  contradicts  and  stul- 
tifies the  gospel,  vv.  1-19.  (2)  That  Christ's  resurrection 
is  the  pledge  of  the  victory  of  God's  kingdom,  and  the  war- 
rant of  the  believer's  hope  in  Him,  vv.  20-34.  (3)  That 
the  principle  of  the  resurrection  runs  through  Nature, — 
from  the  death  of  the  seed  a  higher  life  being  unfolded, 
vv.  35-49.  (4)  Finally,  it  is  revealed  that  Christ's  advent 
will  bring  about  the  resurrection  of  the  departed  and 
the  transformation  of  living  saints,  alike  necessary  for 
their  entrance  into  the  final  kingdom  of  God,  of  which  the 
Corinthians  must  cherish  an  unwavering  hope,  vv.  50-58. 

The  Conclusion,  chap.  xv. : 

Touching  the  collection  for  Jerusalem,  the  apostle's  plans 
of  travel,  the  sending  of  Timothy  to  Corinth,  the  arrival 
of  Stephanas  and  his  companions  ;  followed  by  brief  exhor- 
t?itions  and  greetings,  an  anathema  on  those  who  "  love 
not  the  Lord,"  an  invocation  of  Christ's  grace,  and  a  final 
assurance  of  the  apostle's  love  to  all. 


96  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

We  will  add,  as  before,  a  paraphrase  of  some 
of  the  salient  passages  of  the  epistle : 

Chap.  iv.  6-9. — "  Now,  I  have  applied  all  this  (ch.  iii.  4- 
iv.  5)  to  the  case  of  Apollos  and  myself  for  your  benefit, 
hoping  that  by  this  example  you  will  learn  to  keep  your 
thoughts  concerning  men  within  the  rule  of  Scripture  (see 
ch.  i.  31,  ii.  16,  iii.  19-21),  and  will  cease  to  pride  your- 
selves on  belonging  to  one  leader  in  contempt  of  another. 
If  you  differ  from  others,  who  is  it  makes  the  difference  ? 
What  have  you,  pray,  that  you  did  not  receive?  If  you 
received  it,  why  boast  of  it  as  though  it  were  your  own  ? 

"And  how  much  you  have  received  ! — enough,  it  seems, 
and  more  than  enough  already !  You  have  grown  rich, 
forsooth  ;  you  have  come  into  your  kingdom,  and  need  us 
no  longer !  Aye,  would  to  God  that  you  were  kings  in- 
deed ;  that  we,  too,  might  share  your  royalty  !  As  for  us 
the  apostles,  it  seems  to  me  that  God  has  set  us  in  the  last 
place,  as  men  condemned  to  death  and  kept  for  the  end  of 
the  show.  We  have  become  a  spectacle  to  the  whole  world 
—alike  to  angels  and  to  men  !  " 

Chap.  vi.  12-20. — "  'All  things  are  lawful,'  say  you? 
Yes,  but  not  all  things  are  profitable.  All  things  are  law- 
ful for  me  (are  in  my  power)  ;  but  I  will  not  be  brought 
under  the  power  of  any.  Food,  for  example,  is  for  the 
belly,  and  the  belly  for  its  food ;  both  of  them  God  will 
abolish.  Not  so  with  the  body  :  it  is  not  for  fornication 
(the  maxim  '  All  things  are  lawful '  has  no  place  here) ;  it 
belongs  to  the  Lord,  and  the  Lord  to  it ;  and  God  who 
raised  up  the  Lord  Jesus  will  raise  us  from  the  dead  also 
through  His  power. 

"Do  you  not  know  that  your  bodies  are  limbs  of  Christ  ? 
Shall  I  then  take  Christ's  limbs  away  from  Him,  and  make 
them  limbs  of  a  harlot  ?  The  thought  is  monstrous  !  The 
man  who  attaches  himself  to  a  harlot,  is,  as  you  know,  one 
body  with  her :  according  to  what  Scripture  says  of  the 


THE   FIEST   TO   TPIE   COKINTHLiNS.  97 

union  of  man  and  woman,  '  The  two  sliall  be  one  flesh.' 
So,  on  the  other  hand,  he  who  attaches  himself  to  the  Lord 
is  one  spirit  with  Him. 

' '  Flee  from  fornication.  Every  other  act  of  sin  a  man 
may  commit  lies  outside  the  body  ;  but  the  fornicator  sins 
against  his  own  body.  Do  you  not  know  that  your  body 
is  a  temple  of  the  Holy  Spirit  within  you,  the  Spirit  you 
have  from  God,  and  that  you  are  not  your  own  property  ? 
You  were  bought — with  what  a  price !  Glorify  God,  then, 
in  your  body." 

Chap.  x.  23-30.—"  '  All  things  are  lawful.'  Very  good  ; 
but  not  all  things  are  profitable.  '  All  things  are  lawful ' ; 
but  not  all  things  are  edifying.  Let  no  one  seek  his  own 
advantage,  but  every  one  his  fellow's. 

"  You  may  eat  anything  that  is  sold  in  the  market,  with 
a  good  conscience,  asking  no  question  about  it ;  for  '  The 
earth,  with  its  fulness,  is  the  Lord's.'  If  any  one  who  is 
not  a  Christian  asks  you  to  dinner,  and  you  are  minded  to 
go,  eat  whatever  is  set  before  you,  with  a  good  conscience, 
asking  no  question  about  it.  But  supposing  some  one 
should  say,  'Now,  this  meat  was  killed  in  sacrifice!'  eat 
no  more  of  it,  for  the  sake  of  him  that  told  you,  and  for 
conscience'  sake — I  mean  the  conscience  of  the  other,  not 
your  own.  For  it  is  not  well  that  my  liberty  should  be 
condemned  by  another  man's  conscience  ;  and  that,  while 
I  am  partaking  with  thankfulness  to  God,  in  the  midst  of 
my  thanksgiving  I  should  be  reviled  for  this  very  thing." 

Chap.  xv.  12-19.— "Now,  if  Christ  is  preached  and  the 
fact  of  His  resurrection,  how  is  it  that  some  of  you  can 
say,  '  There  is  no  resurrection  of  the  dead '  ?  If  that  is  the 
case,  why  then  Christ  has  not  been  raised ;  and  if  Christ 
has  not  been  raised,  the  gospel  we  preached,  and  your 
faith  in  it,  are  empty  and  vain.  Yes,  and  we  are  proved 
to  be  false  witnesses  towards  God  ;  for  we  have  borne  wit- 
ness, to  God's  discredit,  that  He  raised  up  the  Christ — 
when  He  did  nothing  of  the  kind,  if  it  is  true  that  the 


98  THE  EPISTLES    OF  PAUL. 

dead  never  rise.  For  if  the  dead  do  not  rise,  Christ  has 
not  risen. 

"  Moreover,  if  Christ  has  not  risen,  your  faith  is  useless  : 
you  are  still  in  your  sins.  Then,  too,  it  follows  that  those 
who  fell  asleep  in  Christ  perished !  If  the  hope  we  have 
cherished  in  Christ  ends  with  this  life,  we  of  all  men  are 
most  to  be  pitied." 

Verses  44-49. — "If  there  is  a  natural  body  (one  that 
suits  the  soul  as  it  is),  there  is  also  a  spiritual  body.  And 
thus  it  stands  written:  'The  first  man — i.e.,  Adam — be- 
came a  living  soul,'  while  the  last  Adam  became  a  life- 
giving  spirit.  It  is  the  natural  (that  which  belongs  to  the 
soul)  which  comes  first,  not  the  spiritual :  this  must  follow. 
The  first  man  comes  of  the  earth,  and  is  earthy  :  the  second 
man  is  from  heaven.  These  two  have  each  his  counter- 
part, in  earthy  and  in  heavenly  men.  And  even  as  we 
have  worn  the  image  of  the  earthy  (Adam),  we  are  also 
to  wear  the  image  of  the  heavenly  (Christ)." 


CHAPTER  VI. 

the  second  to  the  corinthians. 

The  Interval  between  1  and  2  Corinthians. 

St.  Paul's  departure  from  Ephesus  was  hast- 
ened by  the  tumult  raised  by  the  shrine-mak- 
ers of  Artemis  (or  Diana)  against  him  (Acts 
xix.  21-xx.  1).  It  was  some  time  before  Pen- 
tecost, in  the  year  58,  when  he  "  departed  for 
to  go  into  Macedonia."  He  journeyed  to 
Troas,  awaiting  there  the  return  of  Titus  from 
Corinth  before  he  should  embark  for  Mace- 
donia ;  and  making  use  of  the  "  door  opened  " 
to  him  at  this  place  to  preach  Christ  (2  Ep.  ii. 
12, 13).  Accordingly,  we  find  a  Pauline  church 
in  existence  at  Troas,  on  the  apostle's  return 
journey  this  way  in  the  following  spring  (Acts 
XX.  6-12).  But  Titus  did  not  arrive  at  the 
time  expected ;  and  the  apostle,  finding  "  no 
rest  in  his  spirit "  on  this  account,  oppressed 
with  anxiety  about  the  church  of  Corinth, 
bade  farewell  to  his  new  friends  at  Troas  and 
pushed  on  to  meet  Titus  in  Macedonia. 

This  was  the  darkest  hour  in  St.  Paul's  life, 
since  the  days  he  spent  in  blindness  at  Damas- 

99 


100  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

cus.  Referring  to  it  again  in  2  Ep.  vii.  5,  he 
writes :  '^  When  we  were  come  into  Macedonia, 
our  flesh  had  no  rest,  but  we  were  troubled  on 
every  side.  Without  were  fightings;  within 
were  fears."  Corinth  appeared  to  be  in  full 
revolt  against  him.  Galatia  was  falling  away 
to  "  another  gospel."  He  had  narrowly  escaped 
with  his  life  from  the  enraged  populace  of 
Ephesus, — "  wild  beasts  "  with  whom  he  had 
long  been  fighting,  and  at  whose  mercy  he  had 
left  his  flock  in  that  turbulent  city  (1  Ep.  xv. 
32).  He  was  "pressed  out  of  measure,  above 
strength."  Under  this  continued  strain  of 
excitement  and  anxiety,  his  strength  suc- 
cumbed ;  he  was  seized  with  an  attack  of  sick- 
ness, which  threatened  to  terminate  his  life. 
"We  despaired  even  of  life,"  he  says:  "we 
had  the  sentence  of  death  in  ourselves  "  (2  Ep. 
i.  8,  9). 

This  last  expression,  combined  with  the 
language  of  2  Ep.  iv.  7-v.  4  ("  this  treasure  in 
earthen  vessels — bearing  about  in  the  body 
the  dying  of  Jesus — though  our  outward  man 
perish,"  etc.),  appears  to  us  to  intimate  very 
clearly  that,  in  referring  to  "  the  trouble  that 
came  upon  him  in  Asia"  and  which  proved 
so  nearly  fatal,  the  apostle  is  thinking  not  so 
much  of  the  danger  incurred  by  persecution 
as  of  his  enfeebled  physical  condition.    He 


THE  SECOND  TO   THE  CORINTHIANS.        101 

had  been  at  death's  door.  His  life  and  work, 
to  all  appearance,  were  coming  to  an  end,  and 
under  circumstances  of  the  most  ominons 
nature.  Together  with  his  life,  the  fate  of  his 
mission  and  of  G-entile  Christianity  trembled 
in  the  balance.  Never  had  he  felt  himself  so 
helpless,  so  beaten  down  and  discomfited,  as 
on  that  melancholy  journey  from  Ephesus  to 
Macedonia,  and  while  he  lay  upon  his  sick-bed 
(perhaps  at  Philippi),  knowing  not  whether 
Titus  or  the  messenger  of  death  would  reach 
him  first. 

This  crisis  left  a  deep  mark  on  Paul's  spirit- 
ual history.  Chap.  iv.  7-v.  9  is  a  leaf  from  his 
autobiography.  It  is  a  record  of  his  inner 
experience  during  this  sorrowful  period.  For 
the  first  time  since  he  became  a  believer  in 
Jesus  Christ,  he  has  reahzed  the  fact  that  he 
may  not  hope,  within  his  own  lifetime,  to  see 
the  Lord  return  in  glory.  He  must  be  "  ab- 
sent from  the  body,  to  be  present  with  the 
Lord."  And  to  this  he  consents — not  without 
a  struggle,  for  he  shrank  from  the  bitterness 
of  death.  "  We  do  not  want,"  he  writes,  "  to 
be  unclothed,  but  clothed  upon  (to  put  on  the 
heavenly  body  above  the  earthly,  absorbing 
and  superseding  it),  that  the  mortal  in  us  may 
be  swallowed  up  of  life"  (2  Ep.  v.  4).  But  if 
this  may  not  be,  still  he  is  "  always  confident." 


102  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

"We  know,"  lie  says,  "that  if  our  earthly- 
house,  our  tabernacle-dwelling,  be  dissolved, 
we  have  in  the  heavens  a  building  of  God,  not 
made  by  hands,  eternal !  "  So  the  apostle,  in 
this  faith,  has  encountered  and  overcome  for 
himself  the  king  of  terrors.  From  this  time 
forward  he  expected,  as  he  puts  it  in  Phil.  i. 
23,  to  "  de^jart  and  be  with  Christ " ;  and  this 
was  his  personal  desire.  Never  subsequently 
does  he  write,  as  he  did  in  1  Thess.  iv.  15,  17 
and  1  Cor.  xv.  51,  of  those  who  should  be 
found  living  at  the  Lord's  second  coming  in 
the  first  ^person.  We  must  not  be  surprised  at 
a  change  of  view  upon  this  point,  for  even 
apostles  only  "knew"  and  "prophesied  in 
part."  Christ  spoke  of  a  speedy  coming,  but 
forbade  all  attempts  to  fix  the  time  before- 
hand. Until  otherwise  instructed,  it  was  the 
more  reverent  and  natural  thing  for  the 
Church  in  the  apostolic  age  to  expect  Him 
at  any  time ;  and  its  language  necessarily  re- 
flected this  feeling  and  desire. 

The  expectation  of  the  imroiisia  had  been  so 
powerful  in  its  influence  upon  the  apostle's 
mind  that  the  lesson  and  the  revelation  he 
now  received  necessarily  made  a  considerable 
difference  to  him,  and  affected  his  teaching  in 
various  directions.  A  longer  perspective  of 
earthly  life  and  warfare  for  the  Church  opens 


THE   SECOND  TO   THE  CORINTHIANS.        103 

before  his  eyes  (Rom.  i.  5,  xvi.  26 ;  Epli.  ii.  7). 
Family  relationships  and  civil  duties  resume 
their  importance.  We  find  the  relation  of 
Christ  and  His  kingdom  to  nature  and  mate- 
rial things  interesting  the  apostle's  mind  in 
subsequent  epistles,  in  a  way  that  was  scarcely 
possible  while  the  return  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
and  the  end  of  the  existing  world  occupied 
the  immediate  foreground  of  his  field  of  view. 
Brief,  then,  as  the  interval  was  that  separated 
the  first  and  second  epistles  to  the  Corinthians, 
it  was  a  memorable  epoch  and  a  turning-point 
in  the  apostle's  life  and  the  course  of  his 
thoughts.  He  rose  from  his  sick-bed  with  a 
serene  and  lofty  spirit,  master  of  the  fears 
within,  and  assured  that  he  would  prevail  in 
the  fightings  that  had  well-nigh  overwhelmed 
him  from  without.  Titus  returned  with  news 
from  Corinth  which  re-established  his  shat- 
tered health  more  quickly  than  all  the  medi- 
cines in  the  world. 

Titus'  Eeport  from  Corinth. 

The  relief  which  St.  Paul  now  experienced 
was  as  intense  as  had  been  the  previous  dis- 
tress and  alarm  into  which  he  was  plunged  by 
the  misconduct  of  the  Corinthians.  "God, 
who  cheers  those  that  are  low,  has  cheered  us 
by  the  coming  of  Titus.  ...  He  has  told  us 


104  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

of  your  longing  for  me,  yonr  lamentation, 
your  jealousy  on  my  account.  .  .  .  You  sor- 
rowed after  a  godly  sort.  And  what  zeal  it 
wrought  in  you,  what  clearing  of  yourselves, 
what  indignation,  what  fear,  what  yearning, 
what  jealousy,  what  avenging!  .  .  .  Great 
is  my  glorying  over  you !  I  am  filled  with 
comfort,  and  exceeding  jo}^ul !  .  .  .  I  rejoice 
that  I  have  confidence  in  you  in  all  things" 
(2  Ep.  vii.  6-16).  Evidently,  the  first  epistle 
had  brought  about  a  reaction  in  the  church 
of  Corinth ;  there  had  been  an  outburst  of  loy- 
alty towards  the  apostle,  and  of  indignation 
and  repugnance  against  the  chief  offender,  who 
in  addition  to  his  gross  immorality  had  treated 
St.  Paul's  authority  with  insolent  defiance. 

The  sentence  which  the  apostle  required  the 
church  to  pass  upon  the  incestuous  person 
(1  Ep.  V.)  had  been  inflicted  by  the  general 
vote  (2  Ep.  ii.  5-7),  with  an  emphasis  that  left 
nothing  to  be  desired.  Under  this  condem- 
nation, and  the  awful  penalties  involved  in  it, 
the  stubborn  offender  had  quailed.  He  made 
haste  to  repent  of  his  sin,  and  was  now  so 
changed  and  humbled  that  the  apostle  sees  fit 
in  writing  again  to  intercede  for  him,  and  even 
entreats  the  church  to  restore  its  love  to  the 
unhappy  man.  On  the  two  main  matters  of 
dispute,  his  apprehensions  are  therefore  re- 


THE   SECOND   TO   THE  CORINTHIANS.        105 

lieved.  It  is  clear  that  the  majority  of  the 
Corinthian  church  will  no  longei'  tolerate  fla- 
grant impurity  in  their  midst,  and  that  they 
are  still  loyal  to  himself  as  their  apostle  and 
father  in  Christ. 

The  majority,  we  say ;  for  this  is  what  the 
words  of  2  Ep.  ii.  6  signify, — "this  punish- 
ment which  was  inflicted  by  tlie  more  party 
It  is  to  the  faithful  majority,  which  had  rallied 
to  the  apostle's  side  and  inflicted  a  crushing 
reproof  on  the  object  of  his  condemnation, 
that  Paul's  "mouth  is  opened  and  his  heart 
enlarged"  (ch.  vi.  11).  By  them  "  Titus'  spirit 
had  been  refreshed";  and  Paul's  "glorying" 
in  them  justified.  And  in  them  he  now 
rejoices  with  a  renewed  and  full  confidence. 
But  a  majority  implies  a  minority.  Some  had 
not  concurred  in  the  vote  of  excommunica- 
tion. And  the  latter  part  of  the  epistle  shows 
that  St.  Paul  had  still  enemies  at  Corinth,  of 
the  most  dangerous  and  virulent  character. 
Indeed,  there  is  much  more  of  the  language 
of  denunciation  in  this  letter  than  in  the  for- 
mer. The  four  parties  that  were  distinguish- 
able when  the  first  epistle  was  written,  are 
now  resolved  into  two.  The  Apolline  faction, 
marked  off  from  the  Pauline  by  personal 
attachment  and  admiration  more  than  by 
difference  of  principle,  seems  to  have  disap- 


106  THE   EPISTLES    OF   PAUL. 

peared.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Petrine  party 
— consisting  of  those  who  boasted,  "I  am  of 
Cephas" — had  grown  bolder  and  more  bit- 
ter in  their  antagonism.  Judaistic  partisans 
would  naturally  oppose  the  claims  that  Paul 
had  put  forward  in  the  first  epistle,  and  the 
apostolic  jurisdiction  which  he  there  asserted. 
Many  indications  show  that  the  opponents  he 
has  in  view  in  2  Ep.  x.-xiii.  belonged  to  this 
faction,  and  assumed  to  be  supporters  of  the 
Twelve  and  of  the  mother  church  at  Jerusalem 
against  the  pretensions  and  innovations  of  Paul. 
Quite  recently  there  had  arrived  at  Corinth 
"certain  persons"  with  "letters  of  commen- 
dation "  (eh.  iii.  1),  obtained  in  all  probability 
from  Jerusalem  (comp.  Acts  xv.  1,  24;  Gal. 
ii.  12),  whose  presence  goes  far  to  account  for 
the  new  situation  now  disclosed  at  Corinth, 
and  for  the  manner  in  which  the  apostle  vin- 
dicates himself  in  the  latter  part  of  this  epistle. 
These  men  professed  to  represent  the  true 
apostles  of  Jesus  Christ;  Paul,  they  said, 
stood  far  behind  them  (ch.  xi.  5,  xii.  11).  They 
claimed,  indeed,  to  be  themselves  "  apostles  of 
Christ "  with  a  right  as  good  as  that  which  he 
could  assert  (ch.  xi.  13).  They  accused  him  of 
arrogance  and  unmeasured  boasting  (ch.  x. 
8-18) ;  they  ridiculed  his  person  and  speech, 
and  alleged  that  he  was  bold  only  by  letter 


THE   SECOND  TO   THE   CORINTHIANS.        107 

and  from  a  distance  (eh.  x.  1,  2,  10,  xiii.  10). 
In  his  humble  demeanor  and  his  refusal  to 
take  payment  for  his  work  they  saw  a  hidden 
craft,  and  at  the  same  time  a  tacit  confes- 
sion of  his  inferiority  (ch.  xi.  7-12,  xii.  13-18). 
For  their  own  part,  they  supported  their  dig- 
nity by  large  exactions  (ch.  xi.  12,  20,  21,  xii. 
13) ;  for  they  belonged  to  the  "  Hebrew  "  aris- 
tocracy, and  were  of  the  true  and  legitimate 
ministers  of  Christ  (ch.  xi.  22,  23).  They 
spoke  of  visions  and  revelations,  moreover, 
and  "of  other  "  signs  of  the  apostle,"  in  regard 
to  which  they  set  Paul  below  themselves 
(ch.  xii.  1,  12) ;  and  they  said  that  churches 
which  acknowledged  such  a  man  for  their  chief 
must  be  content  to  remain  in  an  inferior  and 
secondary  position,  as  compared  with  those 
founded  and  directly  governed  by  the  origi- 
nal apostles  (ch.  xii.  13).  Throughout,  Paul  is 
combating  a  systematic  and  cunning  attempt 
to  overthrow  his  authority  at  Corinth,  in 
which  the  Judsean  emissaries  took  the  lead, 
supported  by  a  minority  in  the  church.  By 
these  men  he  was  attacked  openly,  and  with 
the  most  malicious  w^eapons.  They  aimed  at 
nothing  short  of  his  deposition  from  the  apos- 
tleship,  and  at  bringing  the  churches  founded 
by  Paul  under  the  direction  of  Jerusalem. 
In  Galatia,  as  we  shall  afterwards  find,  the 


108  THE   EPISTLES    OF   PAUL. 

Judaistic  agitators  denounced  St.  Paul's  doc- 
trine, while  they  seem  to  have  spared  his  per- 
son ;  but  at  Corinth  the  assault  was  mainly  of 
a  personal  character.  In  each  case  the  ground 
of  conflict  was  skilfully  chosen.  For  the  Ga- 
latian  converts  had  been  warmly  attached  to 
the  apostle,  but  i^robably  entered  with  less 
intelligence  and  sympathy  into  his  doctrine. 
The  Corinthian  church,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  distinguished  for  its  intellectual  gifts,  for 
its  breadth  of  mind  and  love  of  liberty ;  but  it 
displayed  less  personal  devotion  to  St.  Paul, 
and  its  contentious  disposition  laid  it  open  to 
the  arts  of  his  maligners.  The  recent  strife 
within  this  church,  and  the  high  tone  of 
authority  that  Paul  assumed  on  the  question 
of  discipline,  gave  them  a  vantage-ground  of 
which  they  made  the  utmost  use.  From  chap, 
xi.  3,  4  it  appears,  however,  that  the  doctrinal 
question  was  involved  along  with  the  personal, 
and  lay  in  reality  behind  it.  It  was  "  another 
Jesus,  another  spirit,  another  gospel "  that  was 
being  introduced  and  preached,  under  cover 
of  the  disparagement  and  insult  heaped  upon 
the  apostle  Paul. 

We  have  now  accounted  for  the  two  chief 
sections  of  the  epistle,  based  as  it  was  upon 
the  report  of  Titus.  It  remains  to  add  that 
tlie  collection  for  Jerusalem,  which  "Achaia" 


THE   SECOND   TO   THE   CORINTHIANS.         109 

had  declared  itself  "  ready  "  to  make  "  a  year 
ago "  (ch.  ix.  2),  and  about  which  particular 
instructions  were  given  in  the  first  epistle,  had 
not  yet  been  completed  at  Corinth.  So  Paul 
addresses  himself  to  the  subject  once  more,  in 
chaps,  viii.-ix.,  notifying  at  the  same  time  the 
return  of  Titus  to  Corinth  to  conclude  this 
business ;  along  with  whom  a  representative 
of  Macedonia  is  sent,  a  brother  of  high  repute 
amongst  the  churches  (ch.  viii.  6,  16-24). 

Chaeacteristics  of  2  Corinthians. 

Let  us  now  endeavor  to  comprehend  the 
nature  of  Paul's  second  epistle  to  the  Corinth- 
ians. It  differs  very  greatly  from  the  first, 
alike  in  tone  and  contents.  The  first  is  ob- 
jective and  practical;  the  second  intensely 
subjective  and  personal.  The  first  is  calm  and 
measured  in  tone, — sometimes  severe,  but 
always  collected  and  deliberate ;  the  second  is 
broken,  vehement,  impassioned — now  melting 
into  the  softest  affection,  now  rising  into  a 
storm  of  indignant  reproach  and  sarcasm. 
The  first  epistle  reflects  the  nature  of  the  Co- 
rinthian church — its  abundance  of  talent  and 
activity,  its  truly  Grreek  factiousness  and  love 
of  display,  its  defects  of  conscience  and  moral 
sense,  its  close  relations  with  heathen  society ; 
the  second  reveals  the  nature  of  the  apostle 


110  THE   EPISTLES    OF  PAUL. 

Paul  himself — Ms  sensitive  honor  and  con- 
tempt for  chicanery,  the  tenderness  and  ardor 
of  his  affection  for  the  Gentile  churches — the 
affection  of  a  mother  or  lover  rather  than  that 
which  commonly  belongs  to  the  teacher  and 
the  pastor ;  the  frailty  of  his  delicate  yet  act- 
ive and  enduring  frame,  the  unparalleled  hard- 
ships he  endured,  the  violent  enmities  amidst 
which  he  moved,  his  continual  sense  of  eternal 
things,  the  supernatural  visitations  and  mys- 
tical raptures  that  he  experienced,  the  awful 
miraculous  powers  he  was  capable  of  exerting, 
his  absolute  sincerity  and  self-abnegation,  his 
absorbing  devotion  to  the  doctrine  and  mes- 
sage of  the  cross, — all  these  qualities  of  the 
great  apostle  and  characteristics  of  his  work 
stand  out  in  the  pages  of  this  letter  with 
amazing  vividness  and  power.  Never  has  any 
man  painted  himself  more  naturally  and  more 
effectively  than  St.  Paul  in  the  letter  before 
us.  To  see  him  at  his  greatest  as  a  thinker 
and  theologian,  we  turn  to  the  epistle  to  the 
Romans ;  to  know  him  as  a  saint,  we  read  the 
Philippian  epistle.  But  if  we  would  measure 
him  as  a  man  amongst  men,  and  as  a  minister 
of  Christ ;  if  we  would  sound  the  depths  of  his 
heart  and  realize  the  force  and  fire  of  his 
nature,  the  ascendency  of  his  genius  and  the 
charm  of  his  manner  and  disposition, — we 


THE   SECOND   TO   THE   COEINTHIANS.         Ill 

must  tliorouglily  understand  the  second  letter 
to  the  Corinthians. 

This  is  Paul's  apologia  pro  vita  sua.  Its 
main  interest  is  not  doctrinal,  as  in  Galatians 
and  Romans,  although  there  are  weighty  pas- 
sages of  doctrine  in  it;  nor  practical,  as  in 
1  Corinthians  and  the  Pastorals,  although 
chaps,  viii.  and  ix.,  in  the  middle  of  the  letter, 
are  practical  enough :  it  is  intensely  personal, 
made  up  of  explanation,  defence,  protestation, 
appeal,  reproach,  invective,  threatening,  with 
a  vein  of  subduing  pathos,  blended  with  the 
most  subtle  irony,  running  through  the  whole. 
St.  PauPs  heart  just  now  is  very  tender.  He 
has  been  down  in  the  gulfs  of  sorrow,  and 
lying  beneath  the  shadow  of  death.  The 
restored  affection  of  the  Corinthian  church 
found  him  in  the  state  when  such  a  cordial 
was  most  needed,  and  it  moved  his  whole 
nature  in  response;  while  the  insolence  and 
intrigues  of  the  Judaists,  now  disclosed  in 
their  full  baseness,  roused  in  him  a  scorn 
that  knew  no  bounds,  and  a  triumphant  confi- 
dence in  the  "  weapons  of  "  his  apostolic  "  war- 
fare "  and  in  his  power  to  "  overthrow "  their 
"  strongholds  "  (ch.  x.  1-6). 

The  epistle  is  written,  therefore,  in  a  strain 
of  keen  and  high  emotion.  There  runs  through 
it  a  peculiar  mental  tension — such  as  pro- 


112  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

longed  and  deep  suffering  leaves  behind  it  in 
a  nature  like  St.  Paul's — which  we  shall  find 
continued  in  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians.  It 
bears  visibly  "  the  brand  of  Jesus "  (Gal.  vi. 
17;  comp.  2  Cor.  iv.  10)  impressed  on  the 
apostle's  spirit  no  less  than  on  his  body.  Its 
emotional  nature  makes  the  dissection  of  the 
writing  difficult,  and  impossible  to  carry  into 
detail.  Feeling  cannot  be  reduced  to  system 
and  laid  out  in  cold  analysis;  it  vanishes 
under  the  dissecting  knife.  Again  and  again, 
when  we  seem  to  be  on  the  track  of  some  reg- 
ular sequence  of  thought,  the  spring  of  emo- 
tion is  touched,  and  it  surges  up  in  a  tide  that 
carries  grammar  and  logic  away  with  it,  and 
sets  at  defiance  our  schemes  of  analysis.  This 
disconnectedness  has  led  some  critics,  very 
needlessly,  to  question  the  unity  of  the  epistle. 
Feeling  has,  after  all,  a  logic  of  its  own.  With 
this  caution,  and  careful  not  to  attempt  too 
much,  we  will  proceed  with  our  analysis. 

Analysis  of  2  Cokinthians. 

The  epistle  consists  of  two  distinct  apolo- 
gies, with  a  homily  on  the  collection  for  Jeru- 
salem interjected  between  them. 

A.  The  apostle's  defence  of  his  ministry  he- 
fore  the  Corinthian  chwch.     Chaps,  i.-vii. 


THE   SECOND   TO   THE   COEINTHIANS.         113 

§  1.  Introduced  (after  the  salutation)  by  a  thanksgiving 
for  the  comfort  that  attended  his  recent  troubles  (ch.  i. 
3-7),  and  an  account  of  the  danger  he  had  passed  through 
iyY.  8-11). 

§  2.  The  defence  of  his  conduct  in  recent  oc(mrrences 
(ch.  i.  12-ii.  17)  :  especially  in  regard  to  the  delay  of  his 
visit  to  Corinth,  and  his  disposition  towards  the  man  lately 
subject  to  discipline  there. 

§  3.  Touching  the  general  character  and  spirit  of  his 
ministry  (chaps,  iii.-vi.)  :  its  attitude  towards  the  Old  Cov- 
enant (ch.  iii.),  its  Divine  origin  (ch.  iv.  1-6),  the  frailty  of 
its  earthly  instrument  (vv.  7-18),  its  relation  to  eternal 
things  (ch.  v.  1-13),  its  great  message  of  reconciliation 
(ch.  V.  14-vi.  2),  and  the  temper  in  which  it  is  pursued 
(vv.  3-10). 

§  4.  This  defence  is  followed  by  an  appeal  to  the  Co- 
rinthians for  reciprocal  affection  (ch.  vi.  11-13,  vii.  2,  3), 
and  an  account  of  the  impression  made  upon  him  by  the 
tidings  which  Titus  had  brought  from  them  (vv.  4-16). 
[To  ch.  vi.  14-vii.  1  we  made  reference  on  p.  81.] 

B.  The  homily  on  the  collection.  Chaps,  viii., 
ix. 

These  two  chapters  are  so  different  in  purport  and  tone 
from  the  rest  of  the  letter  that  some  critics  suppose  them 
to  be  foreign  to  it,  and  think  they  were  imported  into  this 
place  from  another  source  ;  but  we  have  seen  that  the  sub- 
ject demanded  a  place  in  this  epistle,  and  the  change  of 
tone  is  in  harmony  with  a  nature  like  St.  Paul's.  After 
the  first  wave  of  emotion  has  spent  itself,  a  quiet,  level 
passage  such  as  this  gives  relief  to  the  readers,  while  it 
serves  an  important  purpose  of  its  own.  Then  it  is  fol- 
lowed by  another  outburst,  still  more  animated  than  the 
first.  The  reader  may  judge  for  himself  how  much  the 
effect  of  the  second  apology  (chaps,  x.-xiii.)  is  heightened 


114  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

by  this  pause  and  interlude  ;  and  how  skilfully  it  diverts 
the  attention,  otherwise  overstrained. 

In  these  two  chapters  the  apostle  gives  an  account  of 
what  had  been  done,  and  remained  to  be  done,  in  this 
matter  :  he  acknowledges  the  hearty  interest  the  Corinth- 
ians had  shown  in  it,  and  reminds  them  of  the  Christian 
motives  bearing  upon  the  work, — "the  grace  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ"  (ch.  viii.  9),  the  blessedness  of  the  generous 
giver  (ch.  ix.  6-11),  and  the  thanksgivings  which  their 
bounty  would  cause  to  redound  to  God  (vv.  12-15). 

(7.  The  apostle's  vindication  of  himself  against 
his  adversaries  at  Corinth.    Chaps.  x,-xiii. 

In  the  former  apology  (chaps,  i.-vi.),  St.  Paul  had  in 
view  the  Corinthian  church  at  large,  now  chastened  and 
at  amity  with  himself :  in  the  latter,  he  is  dealing  with  a 
particular  class  of  rancorous  personal  enemies — "some," 
he  says,  ' '  who  reckon  of  us  as  though  we  walked  accord- 
ing to  flesh  "  ;  men  who  denied  his  office,  who  despised  his 
authority,  and  who  poured  contempt  on  his  person  and  his 
teaching  ;  who  made  Paul  and  his  apostleship  the  mark  of 
their  attacks,  in  order  through  him  to  overthrow  the  doc- 
trine that  he  preached  and  establish  "another  gospel." 
Hence  the  striking  change  of  tone  in  this  section — a  change 
from  gentleness  to  severity,  from  entreaty  to  invective, 
from  the  warmth  of  love  to  that  of  indignation. 

§  1.  In  chap.  X.,  and  again  more  categorically  in  chap, 
xiii.,  the  apostle  asserts  Ms  authority,  and  declares  his 
intention  to  use  it  unsparingly  at  Corinth,  should  it  still 
be  needful.  He  will  show,  indeed,  that  he  can  act  as  vig- 
orously as  he  writes. 

§  3.  In  chap.  xi.  1-15,  and  again  in  xii.  14-21,  he  de- 
nounces his  slanderers  and  exposes  their  misrepj'esen- 
tations. 

§  3.  In  chap.  xi.  16-xii.  13,   he  compares  himself  with 


THE   SECOND   TO   THE   COEINTHIANS.         115 

them,  especially  in  respect  of  his  sufferings  and  the  reve- 
lations he  had  received. 

The  Conclusion  (ch.  xiii.  11-13)  breathes  words  full  of 
peace  and  kindness.  It  is  the  sudden  lull  with  which  the 
storm  dies  down  at  the  close  of  day. 

Pakaphrase  of  Select  Passages. 

Chap.  ii.  5-11.— "But  if  any  one  has  caused  grief,  it  is 
not  myself  that  he  has  grieved,  but  in  some  degree— for  I 
would  not  impute  too  much  to  him — he  has  grieved  and 
injured  you  all.  For  such  a  man  the  reproof  inflicted  by 
the  vote  of  the  majority  is  punishment  enough.  Instead 
of  imposing  any  further  penalty,  I  would  have  you  forgive 
him  rather  and  encourage  him,  lest  excess  of  grief  should 
drive  him  to  despair.  Now  is  the  time  to  renew  your  love 
to  him.  I  wrote  as  I  did  before,  not  out  of  desire  for  the 
man's  punishment,  but  to  try  the  extent  of  your  loyalty. 
But  if  you  forgive,  then  I  forgive  too.  For  indeed  in  what 
I  have  forgiven — if  I  had  anything  to  forgive — I  did  it  on 
your  account,  acting  in  the  presence  of  Christ,  and  with  a 
fear  lest  Satan  should  gain  advantage  of  us, — for  we  know 
something  of  his  purposes. " 

Chap.  iv.  16-v.  4. — ' '  And  so  we  do  not  lose  heart.  While 
the  outer  man  decays,  the  inner  man  is  day  by  day  renewed. 
For  our  affliction,  a  light  and  momentary  thing,  yields  us 
an  eternal  glory  which  immeasurably  outweighs  it,  when 
we  look  away  from  the  things  that  are  seen  to  those  un- 
seen.    The  seen  lasts  only  for  a  time  :  the  unseen  forever  ! 

"For  we  know  that  if  our  earthly  house,  this  tent  in 
which  we  dwell,  be  taken  down,  we  have  another  house 
built  by  God,  and  not  of  men's  handiwork, — a  house  that 
endures  forever  in  the  heavens.  In  this  present  habitation, 
to  be  sure,  we  groan,  and  long  for  our  heavenly  dwelling, 
which  we  would  fain  put  on  above  it  (comp.  1  Ep.  xv. 
52-54), — if,  indeed,  when  we  put  it  on,  we  shall  be  found 


116  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

still  in  our  bodily  dress.  We  that  live  in  this  tent-dwell- 
ing, groan  under  its  burdens.  Not  that  we  wish  to  put  off 
the  present  body,  but  to  put  on  over  it  that  other  dress, 
and  so  to  have  the  mortal  in  us  absorbed  in  the  element 
of  life ! " 

Chap.  vi.  11-13  ;  vii.  2-4.— "We  write  to  you,  Corinth- 
ians, without  reserve ;  we  have  opened  to  you  all  our 
hearts !  If  there  is  any  narrowness  or  coldness,  it  is  not 
in  us  :  it  is  in  your  own  feelings.  Will  you  not  meet  our 
affection — I  speak  as  to  my  children — with  a  like  openness 
towards  us?  .  .  .  Make  room  for  us  within  your  hearts. 
There  is  none  of  you  that  we  have  wronged  or  injured,  or 
taken  advantage  of.  I  do  not  say  this  to  condemn  you ; 
for,  as  I  have  said  already,  you  are  in  our  hearts,  joined 
with  us  for  life  or  death.  Great  is  my  freedom  in  address- 
ing you,  great  my  boasting  over  you.  Nothing  could  more 
encourage  me,  nothing  has  so  filled  my  heart  with  joy 
amidst  my  troubles,  as  the  nevrs  which  I  now  hear  from 
Corinth." 

Chap.  x.  1-6. — "  Now,  by  the  meekness  and  mildness  of 
Christ  I  appeal  to  you— I  Paul,  the  man  so  lowly  amongst 
you  and  to  your  face  ;  so  bold,  to  be  sure,  at  a  distance  ! — 
I  beg  of  you  not  to  compel  me  to  be  bold,  when  I  come  to 
you,  with  the  confidence  in  which  I  count  on  being  bold 
against  some  persons,  who  account  of  us  a^  though  we 
walked  according  to  flesh  (acting  on  mere  human  and  sen- 
suous principles).  It  is  true  that  we  walk  in  the  flesh  (liv- 
ing in  the  body),  but  we  do  not  war  after  the  flesh  (con- 
tending with  bodily  weapons  against  material  forces)  ;  for 
our  weapons  of  war  are  not  fleshly,  but  mighty  to  do  God's 
work  in  the  overthrow  of  strongholds,— overthrowing  hos- 
tile arguments  and  every  proud  thing  that  exalts  itself 
against  the  knowledge  of  God,  and  making  every  human 
thought  and  purpose  captive  to  the  obedience  of  Christ. 
Thus  we  are  ready  to  punish  all  disobedience  to  His  rule, 
so  soon  as  your  obedience  is  made  complete." 


THE   SECOND   TO   THE   COEINTHL\NS.         117 

Chap.  xii.  19-xiii.  6. — "You  have  been  thinking  all  this 
time  that  we  are  defending  ourselves  to  you.  Nay,  rather, 
we  speak  before  God  in  the  Spirit  of  Christ ;  and  it  is  your 
ediiication  that  we  seek  in  everything.  For  my  fear  is  lest 
at  my  coming  I  should  find  you,  and  you  in  turn  should 
find  me,  other  than  we  could  wish;  lest,  perchance,  I 
should  find  strife  and  faction  raging  in  all  their  hateful 
forms ;  lest,  when  I  come,  my  God  should  once  more  hum- 
ble me  in  regard  to  you,  and  I  should  have  to  mourn  over 
many  of  those  who  had  sinned  at  that  former  time,  and 
have  not  yet  repented  of  their  unchaste  and  wanton  deeds. 

"  It  is  now  the  third  time  that  I  am  coming  to  you.  '  At 
the  mouth  of  two  or  three  witnesses  shall  everything  be 
established'  pent.  xix.  15).  What  I  have  already  said, 
when  with  you  that  second  time,  I  now  repeat  beforehand  : 
present  or  absent,  I  declare  to  those  former  sinners,  and 
to  all  others,  that  if  I  come  again  I  will  not  spare  them. 
For  you  want  a  proof,  it  seems,  of  the  Christ  who  speaks 
in  me, — although  He  is  not  weak  towards  you,  but  is  mighty 
amongst  you  !  For  if  the  cross  proves  Him  weak,  yet  He 
lives  by  God's  power ;  and  that  weakness  of  His  we  also 
share,  yet  we  shall  live  with  Him  by  God's  power,  and 
live  for  you.  It  is  yourselves,  not  us,  that  you  need  to 
prove,  as  to  whether  you  are  in  the  faith  or  not.  Nay, 
surely,  you  know  already  that  Christ  Jesus  is  in  you,— or 
else  you  are  reprobate  !  But  I  trust  that,  when  the  trial 
comes,  you  will  see  that  we  are  not  reprobate." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

to  the  galatians. 

Place  of  the  G-alatian  Epistle. 

We  left  the  apostle  in  Macedonia,  where  he 
has  just  recovered  from  his  prostration,  and 
has  addressed  his  second  double-edged  epistle 
to  Corinth, — a  message  of  reconciliation  to  the 
loyal  majority  of  the  church,  and  a  very  thun- 
derbolt against  the  enemies  of  his  gospel. 
Now,  it  is  precisely  in  the  strain  of  the  con- 
cluding part  of  2  Corinthians  that  the  epis- 
tle to  the  Galatians  begins.  St.  Paul  has  the 
same  enemies  in  view,  alike  in  east  and  west, 
— preachers  of  "  another  gospel "  and  another 
Christ  than  the  crucified,  deniers  of  his  apos- 
tleship,  "  false  brethren  "  and  '^  deceitful  work- 
ers," who  pretend  to  represent  the  first  apos- 
tles of  Jesus  and  the  primitive  church  at 
Jerusalem  as  against  himself.  This  epistle 
assumes  a  logical  and  doctrinal  character 
wanting  to  2  Corinthians;  but  there  runs 
through  both  the  same  keen  and  exalted  feel- 
ing— an  emotion  at  once  tender  and  severe — 
the  same  tone  of  lofty  apostolic  self-assertion 

118 


TO   THE   GALATIANS.  119 

and  relentless  hostility  to  tlie  Judaizers,  the 
same  vein  of  passionate  remonstrance  and 
crushing  sarcasm.  These  features  had  scarcely 
appeared  in  1  Corinthians;  in  Romans  they 
almost  disappear  again.  They  characterize 
the  two  middle  letters  of  this  group,  and  mark 
the  height  of  the  Judaistic  controversy.  We 
shall  find  traces  of  this  polemical  style — vehe- 
ment, thorough-going,  yet  delicate  and  careful 
— in  the  epistles  of  later  times. 

While  the  feeling  and  temper  of  2  Corinth- 
ians run  over  into  Galatians,  the  ideas  of  this 
letter  are  carried  forward  and  fully  developed 
in  Romans.  In  doctrine  and  argument,  the 
two  latter  epistles  stand  in  the  most  intimate 
connection.  Romans  i.  to  viii.  is  a  calm  and 
luminous  exposition  of  the  body  of  doctrine 
which  Galatians  ii.  to  v.  sketches  out  in  inci- 
sive polemical  form.  Comparison  of  G-al.  iii. 
6-22  with  Rom.  iv.  and  of 'Gal.  iv.  4-7  with 
Rom.  viii.  15-17,  in  particular,  suggests  irre- 
sistibly that  these  writings  followed  very 
closely,  if  not  immediately,  upon  each  other. 
The  above  are  only  conspicuous  examples  out 
of  a  multitude  of  parallel  passages  running 
through  the  greater  part  of  the  Galatian  epis- 
tle.*   There  is  no  sameness,  no  mechanical 

*  See  Lightfoot's  Commentary  on  Galatians  (pp.  47-50)  for 
a  detailed  comparison  of  the  two  writings. 


120  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

repetition ;  but  the  writer's  mind  is  pursuing 
an  identical  line  of  thought :  the  same  ques- 
tions are  raised,  and  similarly  treated;  the 
doctrine  of  Justification  by  Faith  is  the  lead- 
ing subject  of  each ;  even  the  same  texts  are 
quoted,  and  illustrations  used.  Hence  the  late 
Bishop  Lightfoot,  in  disagreement  from  most 
earlier  interpreters,  maintained  that  this  epis- 
tle was  written  between  2  Corinthians  and 
Romans — that  is  to  say,  during  the  latter  part 
of  Paul's  journey  in  Macedonia,  or  the  earlier 
part  of  his  sojourn  at  Corinth,  towards  the 
close  of  the  year  57  (or,  as  we  rather  think, 
58)  A.D.  Dr.  Beet,  in  his  valuable  Commen- 
tary on  this  epistle,  comes  to  the  same  con- 
clusion. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  letter  itself  to  fix 
definitely  either  the  place  or  time  of  its  com- 
position. From  chap.  i.  9,  iv.  13,  v.  3,  we 
gather  that  St.  Paul  had  now  been  in  G-alatia 
twice;  the  epistle  was,  therefore,  subsequent 
to  the  journey  which  he  took  across  Asia 
Minor  in  setting  out  on  his  third  missionary 
tour  (Acts  xviii.  22-xix.  1).  And  all  students 
are  agreed  that  it  belongs  to  the  period  of  the 
legalist  controversy,  and  to  the  second  group 
of  the  epistles.  The  only  question  is  whether 
it  was  written  from  Ephesus  and  previously 


TO   THE   GALATIANS.  121 

to  the  Corinthian  letters — i.e.,  between  the 
autumn  of  55  and  spring  of  58  a.d. — or  after 
these  other  epistles,  and  from  Macedonia  or 
Greece,  in  the  close  of  the  latter  year.  The 
words  "so  quickly"  of  chap.  i.  6  are  adduced 
in  favor  of  the  earlier  date,  as  though  they 
signified  "  so  soon  after  your  conversion,"  or 
"  soon  after  I  left  you."  But  they  rather  mean 
"  so  soon  after  the  temptation  came — so  read- 
ily, and  with  such  little  persuasion"  (comp. 
ch.  V.  7-9).  It  is  the  fickleness  of  the  Gala- 
tians  that  the  apostle  deplores.  An  early 
backsliding,  such  as  the  contrary  view  as- 
sumes, would  not  have  been  matter  of  so  great 
wonder  as  if  it  had  taken  place  later. 

Galatia,  like  Corinth,  had  been  disturbed 
by  "troublers"  imported  from  Judaea;  and  a 
considerable  interval  must  be  allowed  for  their 
coming  and  the  dissemination  of  their  views, 
and,  again,  for  full  information  of  their  arrival 
and  their  disastrous  success  reaching  the  apos- 
tle. So  that,  on  every  account,  one  is  inclined 
to  refer  the  letter  to  the  last  rather  than  to  an 
earlier  period  of  the  third  missionary  tour. 
Comparison  with  the  other  epistles  of  the 
group  raises  this  probability  almost  to  a  cer- 
tainty, and  enables  us  to  fix  the  date  and 
occasion  of  this  letter  with  confidence. 


122  the  epistles  of  paul. 

St.  Paul's  Connection  ^vith  Gtalatia. 

The  Acts  records  the  bare  fact  that  Paul, 
in  his  second  missionary  excursion,  traversed 
"  the  Phrygian  and  Gralatian  country  "  (ch.  xvi. 
6),  without  a  word  to  indicate  how  long  he 
stayed  there,  or  with  what  success  he  preached ; 
except  that,  in  referring  to  the  apostle's  sec- 
ond visit,  St.  Luke  adds  the  clause  ''  strength- 
ening all  the  disciples"  (ch.  xviii.  23),  from 
which  it  is  evident  that  he  was  well  aware  of 
the  existence  of  Pauline  churches  in  the  Grala- 
tian country,  although  he  has  given  no  account 
of  their  establishment. 

For  this  we  must  fall  back  upon  the  epistle 
itself.  In  chap.  iv.  12-15  the  apostle  refers, 
in  graphic  terms,  to  his  arrival  amongst  this 
people.  He  had  fallen  sick  upon  his  journey 
over  the  Phrygian  mountains.  He  reached 
the  G-alatian  border  a  broken-down  traveller, 
halting  here  because  his  strength  had  given 
out  and  he  must  stay  till  it  was  recruited. 
This  he  freely  confessed :  "  Because  of  weak- 
ness of  the  flesh  I  preached  to  you  at  the  first " 
— ^because,  in  fact,  he  was  physically  unable 
to  proceed.  It  was  not  a  promising  intro- 
duction to  this  strange  people.  And  besides 
this,  there  was  something  in  the  nature  of  his 
malady  which  tended  to  excite  contempt,  even 
repulsion,  in  beholders  (ver.  14).     In  spite  of 


TO   THE   GALATIANS.  123 

all  this,  the  warm-hearted  Gauls  received  him 
with  enthusiasm.  Had  he  been  an  "  angel  of 
God,"  or  "  Christ  Jesus  "  Himself,  they  could 
not  have  shown  him  greater  hospitality.  They 
thought  themselves  happy  indeed  that  he  had 
become  their  guest;  there  was  nothing  they 
would  not  have  done  for  him,  even  to  "  dig- 
ging out  their  eyes  to  give  him,"  as  they  said 
with  a  touch  of  genuine  Celtic  exaggeration ! 
Weak  as  he  was,  he  preached  to  this  suscep- 
tible people  with  marvellous  impressiveness, 
his  own  suffering  condition  lending  emphasis, 
as  we  can  imagine,  to  his  descriptions  of  the 
sufferings  of  Christ  for  men  (ch.  iii.  1 ;  comp. 
vi.  17,  and  2  Cor.  iv.  10,  11,  Col.  i.  24).  The 
Holy  Spirit  wrought  mightily  with  the  words 
of  the  infirm  apostle  (ch.  iii.  2-5,  14,  iv.  5-7). 
Many  souls  were  won  for  Christ ;  and  through 
the  towns  and  villages  of  this  wide  province  a 
number  of  churches  were  formed,  over  which 
the  apostle  watched  long  enough  to  know  that 
they  "were  running  well"  in  the  new  race 
(ch.  V.  7).  All  this  implies  a  considerable 
length  of  time  spent  by  Paul  and  his  compan- 
ions in  this  district,  especially  when  we  con- 
sider the  bodily  state  in  which  he  arrived,  and 
observe  the  fact  that  the  Galatians  were  not 
gathered,  like  most  Pauline  churches,  in  a 
single  city,  but  lived  scattered  over  a  wide 


124  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

district.  They  were,  in  fact,  country  people; 
whereas  all  the  other  churches  to  which  Paul's 
extant  letters  are  addressed,  consisted  of 
townsfolk. 

Taking  these  facts  into  account,  it  appears 
to  us  impossible  that  the  ground  covered  by 
Acts  XV.  41-xviii.  1  should  have  been  traversed 
in  a  single  year.  Before  they  reached  "the 
Phrygian  and  Galatian  country,"  Paul  and 
Silas  had  visited  and  "strengthened  the 
churches  of  Syria  and  Cilicia."  Then  they 
"  went  through  the  cities  "  of  Lycaonia,  evan- 
gelized by  Barnabas  and  Paul  some  years  be- 
fore. This  extensive  visitation  must  have 
occupied  them  far  into  the  summer;  and  to 
suppose  that  the  Galatian  along  with  some 
Phrygian  churches,  and  after  these  the  Mace- 
donian churches,  were  founded,  and  Athens 
and  Corinth  reached — all  within  the  year  in 
which  St.  Paul  set  out  from  Antioch — seems 
to  us  out  of  the  question.  We  have  suggested 
therefore  (p.  21)  that  the  missionary  band 
spent  the  tvinter  of  51-52  in  Galatia.  Here  St. 
Paul  was  kindly  nursed ;  and,  as  his  strength 
returned,  his  ministrations  were  extended  to 
various  parts  of  the  province.  On  this  view 
we  can  understand  the  intimate  knowledge 
that  he  shows  of  this  outlying  people,  and  the 
very  considerable  knowledge  of  his  doctrine 


TO   THE   GALATIANS.  125 

which  they  had  evidently  acquired,  as  well  as 
the  warm  interest  that  both  parties  felt  in  each 
other. 

The  apostle,  as  we  have  seen,  had  again 
traversed  Galatia  on  his  way  from  Antioch  to 
Ephesus  (55  a.d.).  Concerning  this  visit,  we 
know  only  that  he  "  strengthened  all  the  dis- 
ciples "  (Acts  xviii.  23) ;  and  that  he  saw  already 
symptoms  of  the  same  Judaistic  tendency  of 
whose  force  he  had  just  had  such  a  painful 
experience  at  Antioch  (ch.  i.  9,  v.  3 ;  ii.  11-21), 
and  which  was  afterwards  to  reach  so  danger- 
ous a  height  in  this  region.  Since  that  time, 
now  three  years  distant,  the  apostle  has  been 
living  mostly  at  Ephesus,  and  has  evidently 
kept  himself  well  informed  of  all  that  has 
transpired  amongst  the  Galatians. 

Chaeacter  of  the  (tALATIANS. 

These  people  were  of  Celtic  descent.  Gala- 
tian  is  synonymous  with  Gallic.  They  were 
the  relics  of  a  Gaulish  invasion  which  swept 
over  southeastern  Europe  in  the  early  part  of 
the  third  century  B.C.,  and  poured  into  Asia 
Minor.  Here  the  Celtic  tribes  maintained 
themselves  in  independence,  under  their  na- 
tive princes,  until  a  hundred  years  later  they 
were  subdued  by  the  Romans.  Their  country 
now  formed  a  province  of  the  Empire.    They 


126  THE   EPISTLES    OF   PAUL. 

had  retained  much  of  their  ancient  language 
and  manners ;  at  the  same  time,  they  readily 
acquired  Greek  culture,  and  were  superior  to 
their  neighbors  in  intelligence.  Jews  had  set- 
tled amongst  them  in  considerable  numbers, 
and  had  prepared  the  way  of  the  gospel;  it 
was  through  their  influence  that  the  Juda- 
istic  agitation  took  so  strong  a  hold  of  these 
churches.  The  epistle  imphes  that  its  readers 
generally  were  acquainted  with  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  with  Hebrew  history ;  and  that  they 
took,  moreover,  a  lively  interest  in  the  affairs 
of  the  churches  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch. 

None  of  the  New  Testament  churches  pos- 
sess a  more  strongly  marked  character.  They 
exhibit  the  well-known  traits  of  the  Celtic 
nature.  They  were  generous,  impulsive,  ve- 
hement in  feeling  and  language;  but  vain 
(ch.  V.  26),  fickle,  and  quarrelsome.  Eight  out 
of  the  fifteen  "  works  of  the  flesh  "  enumerated 
in  chap.  v.  20,  21  are  sins  of  strife.  They  could 
hardly  be  restrained  from  "  biting  and  devour- 
ing one  another  "  (ch.  v.  15).  Like  their  kins- 
men at  this  time  in  the  west  of  Europe,  they 
were  prone  to  "  revellings  and  drunkenness." 
They  had  probably  a  natural  bent  towards  a 
scenic  and  ritualistic  type  of  religion,  which 
made  the  spirituality  of  the  gospel  pall  upon 


TO  THE  GAIATIANS.  127 

their  taste,  and  gave  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Judaizers  its  fatal  "  bewitchment." 

The  Judaizees  in  Gtalatia. 

The  Judsean  emissaries  found  therefore  in 
Galatia  a  soil  prepared  and  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  tares  they  came  to  sow.  They 
ventured  to  proceed  more  openly  than  their 
fellow-conspirators  at  Corinth.  They  declared 
that  Paul's  doctrine  was  fundamentally  defect- 
ive, and  unauthorized.  They  appealed  to  the 
practice  of  Jesus  and  the  Twelve,  and  to  the 
customs  of  the  mother  church  in  Jerusalem. 
They  quoted  the  Old  Testament,  and  reasoned 
upon  it  with  skill  and  effect.  They  showed 
that  God  had  made  an  indelible  covenant  with 
Abraham  and  his  seed,  sealed  by  the  token  of 
circumcision;  and  that  Christ  had  not  de- 
stroyed or  set  aside,  but  fulfilled  the  law.  The 
children  of  Abraham  retain,  therefore,  in  the 
new  kingdom  of  God  the  privileges  which  He 
had  guaranteed  to  them ;  and  Gentile  believ- 
ers, if  they  would  become  heirs  in  full  title  of 
the  ancient  promises,  must  add  to  their  faith 
circumcision,  and  conform,  as  far  as  might  be, 
to  the  rule  and  usage  of  the  church  in  Jeru- 
salem. Such  was  the  line  of  "  persuasion '> 
adopted  by  the  Judaizers  in  Galatia,  so  far  as 


128  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

we  can  recover  it  from  the  tenor  of  St.  Paul's 
counter-a  rgument . 

The  apostle's  adversaries,  while  sparing  him 
the  indignities  cast  upon  him  at  Corinth,  did 
not  fail  to  intimate  that  his  ministry  was  of 
an  inferior  and  secondary  order.  His  knowl- 
edge of  the  gospel,  so  they  said,  and  his  au- 
thority to  preach  it  came  from  Peter  and  the 
Twelve,  against  whom  he  now  dares  to  meas- 
ure himself !  "  James  and  Cephas  and  John," 
they  exclaimed — these  are  the  "  pillars  "  of  the 
faith,  "  the  men  in  repute  "  everywhere  through 
the  Church!  This  Paul,  with  his  excessive 
pretensions,  is  an  upstart — a  mere  novice  in 
Christianity,  compared  to  the  others.  And, 
besides,  he  is  inconsistent  with  himself :  it  is 
well  known  that  he  formerly  "  preached  "  the 
rite  of  "  circumcision,"  which  in  Galatia  he  so 
bitterly  opposes  (ch.  v.  11). 

In  Galatia,  therefore,  as  in  Corinth,  the  per- 
sonal and  the  doctrinal  matters  under  discus- 
sion are  involved  in  each  other.  But  here  the 
theological  question,  which  in  2  Corinthians 
was  lying  in  the  shade,  comes  to  the  front 
and  presents  itself  in  its  full  breadth  and  its 
momentous  import.  It  occupies  the  central 
and  largest  part  of  the  letter,  being  pursued 
through  three  chapters  of  the  most  profound, 
condensed,  and  powerful  argument  ever  ex- 


TO   THE   GALATIANS.  129 

pressed  in  writing.  These  pages  are  tlie  char- 
ter of  evangelical  faith ;  they  furnish  the  basis 
and  ground-plan  of  the  theology  of  salvation. 

Analysis  of  G-alatians. 

The  epistle  is  intensely  polemical.  It  is  a 
controversial  pamphlet  rather  than  an  ordinary 
letter.  The  matter  of  dispute,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  twofold:  touching  (1)  Paul's  apostleship; 
and  (2)  the  nature  of  the  gospel,  and  the  suf- 
ficiency of  faith  in  Christ  for  full  salvation. 
This  gives  us  the  order  of  ih^  first  two  and 
main  parts  of  the  epistle.  (3)  A  third  section 
is  added  (ch.  v.  13-vi.  10),  of  a  moral  and  hor- 
tatory nature,  partly  occasioned  by  the  short- 
comings of  the  Galatians,  and  partly  designed 
to  show  that  the  doctrine  of  the  cross,  instead 
of  relaxing  the  bonds  of  morality,  as  the  legal- 
ists alleged,  in  reality  establishes  a  higher  and, 
at  the  same  time,  a  really  attainable  ethical 
ideal.  The  third  section,  therefore,  practical 
as  it  is,  serves  to  complete  the  apostle's  theo- 
retical defence;  for  it  overthrows  the  charge 
of  antinomianism,  that  from  the  first  was 
keenly  urged  against  it.  "  Walk  by  the  Spirit, 
and  you  will  not  fulfil  the  lusts  of  the  flesh :" 
in  these  words  lies  the  principle  of  the  new 
Christian  ethics,  the  method  by  which  a  true 
faith  is  translated  into  a  pure  life. 


130  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Tlie  letter,  therefore,  falls  into  three  con- 
secutive and  admirably  balanced  sections,  fol- 
lowed by  a  brief  and  incisive  summary  of  the 
whole  (ch.  vi.  12-17).  In  point  of  coherence 
and  logical  structure  it  contrasts  with  2  Co- 
rinthians, as  much  as  it  resembles  it  in  other 
ways.* 

Chap.  i.  1-10  we  may  call  the  Prologue,  containing  the 
address  and  salutation^  expressed  in  terms  already  striking 
the  keynote  of  the  epistle,  and  the  anathema  (in  place  of 
thanksgiving)  pronounced  on  perverters  of  the  gospel. 

A.  The  Personal  History.  Chap.  1. 11-ii. 
21. 

Paul  asserts  Ms  independent  and  full  apostlesMp.  He 
does  this  by  a  simple  recital  of  historical  facts,  in  which 
the  critical  epochs  in  his  apostolic  career  are  briefly  set 
forth : 

1.  His  conversion  and  original  call  (ch.  i.  11-17). 

2.  His  early  relations  to  the  church  of  Jerusalem 
(vv.  18-24). 

3.  His  meeting  with  the  three  "pillars"  at  the  confer- 
ence held  on  the  status  of  Gentile  believers  (ch.  ii.  1-10). 

4.  His  collision  with  Cephas  at  Antioch  (vv.  11-21). 

This  last  paragraph  forms  a  natural  and  effective  tran- 
sition between  the  personal  and  doctrinal  sections  of  the 
epistle. 

B.  The  Doctrinal  Polemic.  Chap.  iii.  1- 
V.  12. 

*  For  a  fuller  account  of  the  character  and  scope  of  the 
epistle  see  the  writer's  Commentary  on  Galatians,  in  the 
Expositor's  Bible,  Chap.  I. 


TO  THE  GALATIANS.  131 

This  polemical  exposition  of  PauVs  gospel  has  its  text 
and  starting-point  in  the  last  words  of  chap.  ii. :  "If 
through  law  there  is  righteousness,  then  Christ  died  for 
naught. " 

It  is  not  an  abstract  theological  discussion  :  argument  is 
mingled  with  entreaty ;  Scriptural  exegesis  is  interrupted 
by  remonstrance  and  invective.  The  thought  of  his  "la- 
bor" spent  on  the  Galatians  "  proving  vain  "  awakens  in 
the  apostle  recollections  of  the  past  (ch.  iv.  12-20),  which 
supply  a  moving  episode  in  the  argument,  heightening  its 
effect  on  the  hearts  of  the  readers. 

His  proof  that  Christ  has  not  died  in  vain,  and  that 
righteousness  is  not  through  law,  is  drawn — 

1.  From  his  readers'  reception  of  the  gospel,  and  experi- 
ence-of  its  power  (ch,  iii.  1-5)  ;  and 

2.  From  the  blessedness  of  Abraham,  father  of  believers 
(vv.  6-9)  ;  contrasted  with  the  curse  imposed  by  the  law, 
from  which  Christ  released  us  (vv.  10-14). 

3.  He  now  establishes  the  subordination  of  the  law  to 
the  promise  (vv.  15-18).  This  is  the  central  point  of  the 
argument  with  the  Judaizers. 

4.  He  explains  the  design  of  the  law,  as  it  prepared  for 
the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  (vv.  19-24). 

5.  He  declares  that  faith  in  Christ  makes  all  men  sons 
of  God  and  heirs  of  Abraham  (vv.  25-29). 

The  argumentative  proof  is  now  complete ;  what  remains 
serves  to  illustrate  and  enforce  the  position  already  made 
good. 

6.  Before  Christ's  coming,  he  says,  the  human  race 
was  like  an  heir  in  his  minority,  who  is  now  emancipated 
(ch.  iv.  1-7). 

7.  Judaistic  conformity  is,  for  converted  heathen,  no  ad- 
vance— but  a  relapse  !  (vv.  8-11). 

8.  (Parenthetical.)  The  apostle  speaks  of  his  old  friend- 
ship with  his  readers,  and  his  distress  about  them 
(vv.  12-20). 


132  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

9.  He  resumes  by  picturing  in  the  allegory  of  Hagar  and 
Sarah  the  states  of  Christian  freedom  and  legal  bondage 
(ch.  iv.  21-v.  1). 

10.  Final  protest  against  his  readers'  circumcision 
(vv.  3-13). 

C.  The  Ethical  Application.    Chap.  v.  13- 
vi.  10. 

Liberty  was  the  watchword  of  the  new  Israel  of  God. 
But  the  flesh  is  always  ready  to  find  in  liberty  its  oppor- 
tunity for  sin.  Against  this  the  apostle  must  guard ;  in 
doing  so,  he  wards  off  the  reproach  of  antinomian  teach- 
ing.   Liberty  is  safe,  if  it  is  that  of  love  and  of  the  Spirit. 

1.  Love  the  law  of  liberty  (ch.  v.  13-15). 

3.  The  Spirit  victorious  over  the  flesh  (vv.  16-36).  In 
this  paragraph,  the  "works  of  the  flesh"  and  the  "fruit 
of  the  Spirit "  are  set  forth  in  turn,  that  the  readers  may 
recognize  them. 

Two  brief  and  more  general  homilies  follow,  concerning— 

3.  Our  brother's  burden  and  our  own  (ch.  vi.  1-5). 

4.  The  sowing  and  reaping  of  human  life  (vv.  6-10). 
Verses  11-17  of  chap.  vi.  form  an  Epilogue  to  the  epistle. 

St.  Paul  takes  the  pen  from  his  secretary's  hand,  and  in 
large  characters  and  brief,  trenchant  words  he  gathers  up 
and  drives  home  the  message  of  the  letter,  unmasking 
finally  the  insincerity  of  the  Judaizers,  while  he  pleads  his 
own  loyalty  to  the  cross  of  Christ,  which  has  marked  him 
with  its  brand  of  suffering. 
Verse  18  is  the  concluding  Benediction. 

We  will  paraphrase  below  some  of  the  more 
notable  and  difficult  passages  of  the  epistle : 

Chap.  ii.  14-31. — "I  said  to  Cephas  before  the  whole 
church  of  Antioch  :  You  are  a  born  Jew,  and  yet  conform 


TO  THE  GALATIANS.  133 

to  Gentile  fashion  !  With  what  consistency,  then,  do  you 
put  the  Jewish  yoke  upon  the  Gentiles  ? 

' '  You  and  I  are  both  of  pure  Jewish  blood ;  but  our 
birth  and  works  of  law  failed  to  justify  us.  Only  in 
Christ,  and  through  faith  in  Him,  was  deliverance  from 
our  guilt  to  be  obtained  ;  we  sought  and  found  it  here. 
So  seeking  salvation,  we  proved  ourselves  to  be  sinners. 
But  did  Christ  in  bringing  us  to  this  experience  make  us 
sinners  f  Nothing  of  the  kind !  On  the  other  hand,  I 
should  make  myself  a  sinner,  I  should  fall  inevitably  into 
condemnation,  if  I  set  up  that  abandoned  law  again  ! 

"In  truth,  the  law  drove  me  from  itself  to  Christ.  It 
taught  me  that  through  Him  only  could  I  live  to  God. 
Now  that  I  have  been  crucified  with  Christ,  I  do  live — or, 
rather,  Christ  lives  in  me  ;  and  this  very  life  of  mine  in 
the  flesh  is  a  life  of  faith  in  Him  that  loved  me  and  died 
for  me.  I  will  not  stultify  the  grace  of  God.  If  right- 
eousness can  be  won  by  law,  why  then  Christ  died  for 
nothing  ! " 

Chap.  iii.  19-24.— "Why,  then,  the  law?  It  was  super- 
added to  the  promise,  in  order  to  provoke  transgression 
(comp.  Eom.  v.  20),  until  the  promise  could  take  effect. 
It  was  administered  by  angels,  and  conveyed  by  a  medi- 
ator (Moses).  This  implies  two  (separated)  parties ;  but 
God  (who  gave  the  promise)  is  one  (and  acted  therein  by 
and  for  Himself). 

"Are  law  and  promise,  then,  contradictory?  By  no 
means  !  Had  the  law  been  able  to  give  life,  it  would  have 
made  men  righteous  (and  then  there  would  really  have 
been  contradiction) ;  but  its  oflace  was  to  hold  the  world 
fast  under  the  power  of  sin,  till  the  promise  of  life  through 
Christ  was  ripe  for  its  fulfilment." 

Chap.  iv.  12-20.— "Will  you  not,  dear  Galatian  broth- 
ers, come  down  to  my  Gentile  level  ?  Do  not  think  that  I 
am  complaining,  as  though  you  had  done  me  wrong  !  You 
remember  in  what  condition  I  first  came  to  you ;  and  I 


134  THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL. 

remember  well  the  kindness  that  you  lavished  on  me, — 
you  would  have  given  me  your  very  eyes,  if  I  had  needed 
them  !  Alas  !  what  has  become  of  this  delight  and  grati- 
tude? Now,  because  I  tell  you  the  truth,  you  seem  to 
think  I  hate  you  ! 

' '  Your  new  friends  court  and  flatter  you.  They  want 
you  to  do  the  like  to  them.  Not  that  I  am  jealous  of  your 
making  other  friends  in  my  absence  :  only  let  the  friend- 
ship be  honorable  and  sincere. 

' '  O  my  children  !  I  am  suffering  a  mother's  pangs  for 
you  once  more,  longing  to  see  Christ  formed  in  you ! 
"Would  that  I  could  be  with  you,  and  speak  in  some  kinder 
tone  !    You  perplex  me,  and  I  know  not  what  to  write." 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

TO  THE  EOMANS. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  close  of  St. 
Paul's  third  missionary  journey,  and  the  cul- 
minating point  in  his  career ;  for  it  Was  the 
time  of  his  decisive  conflict  with  the  Judaizing 
faction,  in  the  course  of  which  he  wrote  the 
four  great  evangelical  epistles,  the  last  and 
greatest  of  which  we  are  about  to  review. 
Each  of  these  letters  marks  a  battle  fought  by 
the  apostle  on  behalf  of  gospel  faith  and  free- 
dom :  the  epistle  to  the  Romans  signalizes  the 
crowning  victory. 

The  struggle  was  not  an  outward  conflict 
alone ;  nor  was  the  apostle  engaged,  like  mod- 
ern apologists,  in  shielding  an  old  creed  from 
new  assaults.  It  is  a  novel  and  strange  doc- 
trine* that  he  has  to  vindicate,  whose  founda- 
tions lay,  indeed,  in  the  person  and  teaching 
of  Jesus,  but  which  the  Master  had  left  to  His 
servants  to  build  up.  The  Christian  principle 
had  to  be  unfolded  in  its  manifold  bearings 
on  life  and  history ;  it  must  be  applied  to  the 

135 


136  THE  EPISTLES   OP  PAUL. 

needs  of  the  G-entile  world,  adjusted  both  to 
the  Old  Testament  revelation  and  to  the  con- 
ditions of  the  existing  age — a  time  of  moral 
dissolution  and  deep  spiritual  unrest ;  it  must 
be  made  permanently  secure  against  the  fierce 
reaction  that  arose  on  the  part  of  Judaism,  so 
soon  as  the  full  scope  and  consequences  of  the 
gospel  began  to  be  realized,  and  that  was  des- 
tined, in  other  forms,  to  recur  again  and  again 
in  the  future. 

There  was  only  one  man  equal  to  this  crisis, 
capable  of  grasping  in  all  its  breadth  the  sit- 
uation created  by  the  legalistic  controversy 
at  the  close  of  the  first  Christian  generation. 
The  elements  of  the  problem  lay  within  Paul's 
own  experience.  His  individual  history  had, 
virtually,  been  a  solution  and  settlement  of 
the  questions  at  issue.  They  were  such  as 
these:  How  does  the  law  of  Moses  stand  re- 
lated to  the  new  gospel  of  faith  in  Christ! 
How  reconcile  the  admission  of  uncircum- 
cised  Gentiles  to  the  Church  with  the  indelible 
Abrahamic  covenant  ?  How  can  that  be  the 
true  doctrine  of  Christ  which  His  chosen  peo- 
ple, by  an  overwhelming  majority,  repudiate? 
What  security  is  there  for  morals  under  a  reign 
of  grace  ?  Nay,  what  becomes  of  God's  own 
righteousness  and  who  will  any  longer  rever- 
ence His  law,  upon  a  system  of  free  pardon 


TO  THE  ROMANS.  137 

and  universal  amnesty  for  sinners  ?  With  his 
Pharisaic  training,  with  his  strict  and  delicate 
conscience  and  his  intense  faith  in  the  religion 
of  Israel,  St.  Paul  realized,  even  more  than  his 
opponents,  the  force  and  the  difficulty  of  these 
questions;  and  we  can  see  that  it  cost  him, 
both  before  and  during  the  controversy,  a 
prolonged  struggle  and  the  most  strenuous 
mental  effort  to  arrive  at  the  solution  he  has 
given  us.  We  must  not  suppose  that  inspi- 
ration superseded  study  on  the  part  of  the 
teachers  of  Scripture,  that  the  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  served  as  a  contrivance  for  saving 
labor.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  with  severe 
toil  and  by  the  unsparing  exertion  of  his  spir- 
itual and  intellectual  powers,  that  St.  Paul 
composed  his  great  doctrinal  epistles ;  and  the 
Holy  Spirit  prompted,  sustained,  and  crowned 
the  travail  of  his  human  will  and  reason.  "  I 
labor  hard,"  he  says,  as  he  writes  one  of  his 
most  difficult  letters  (Col.  i.  29,  ii.  1),  "  wrest- 
ling according  to  His  energy  that  works  in  me 
mightily.  .  .  .  For  I  want  you  to  know  what 
a  wrestling  I  am  having  on  your  behalf." 

In  the  Eoman  epistle  the  painful  tension  of 
feeling  which  we  have  marked  in  the  last  two 
letters  has  almost  disappeared.  We  have  no 
longer  the  quick  movement,  the  vehement  and 
halting  utterance,  the  iron  logic  that  runs  hot 


138  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

and  molten  with  the  fire  of  passion  through 
the  pages  of  Gralatians.  This  epistle  is  delib- 
erate, luminous,  ripe,  and  full.  It  is  the  work 
of  a  man  sure  of  himself  and  of  the  ground 
that  he  has  won,  who  is  able  now  to  survey 
calmly  the  field  of  this  perilous  contest,  and 
to  gather  up  for  the  Chui'ch  in  its  completed 
results  the  issue  and  fruit  of  the  momentous 
crisis  through  which  his  mission  has  been 
passing. 

Occasion  of  Romans. 

The  latest  previous  indications  of  time  and 
place  given  us  by  the  epistles  (comp.  2  Cor. 
xiii.  1  with  viii.  1)  left  the  ajDOstle  in  Mace- 
donia for  the  second  time,  and  on  his  way  to 
Corinth.  This  city  he  has  now  reached,  com- 
pleting the  programme  of  his  present  journey, 
and  bringing  to  its  close  one  great  chapter 
of  his  mission,  "  having  from  Jerusalem  right 
away  round  to  Ill^T.'icum  fulfilled  the  gospel 
of  Christ"  (Rom.  xv.  19,  23).  He  is  about  to 
sail  for  Jerusalem,  bearing  the  contributions 
gathered  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia  for  the 
church  there,  and  has  a  strong  presentiment 
of  peril  waiting  him  in  Judaea  (w.  25-27,  30, 
31).  For  the  future  his  thoughts  are  centred 
upon  Rome.  "  For  many  years  "  he  has  longed 
to  carry  the  gospel  there ;  and  when  his  visit 


TO  THE  EOMANS.  139 

to  Jerusalem  is  once  accomplislied,  the  way 
will  at  last  be  clear  for  this  project.  Nor  does 
he  intend  to  halt  at  Eome :  it  will  serve  him 
for  a  stepping-stone  to  Spain  (vv.  22-24,  28 ; 
ch.  i.  10-15). 

From  the  references  of  this  epistle  we  con- 
clude that  St.  Paul  has  carried  out  the  plan 
previously  announced,  and  now  finds  himself 
at  Corinth,  towards  the  end  of  the  winter  of 
58-59  (or  57-58)  a.d.,  preparing  with  the  spring 
to  journey  again  to  Palestine.  This  inference 
is  confirmed  by  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  In 
Acts  XX.  2,  3  we  are  told  that  "  after  Paul  had 
traversed  those  parts  (an  expression  designed, 
perhaps,  to  include  lUyricum  along  with  Mace- 
donia), and  given  them  much  exhortation,  he 
came  into  Greece."  There  "he  stayed  three 
month s.'^  A  "plot  of  the  Jews"  against  him 
compelled  him  to  journey  from  Corinth  by 
land,  instead  of  crossing  the  ^gean ;  and  by 
the  passover  he  had  arrived  at  Philippi  (ver.  6). 
From  Macedonia  he  hastened  on  to  reach 
Jerusalem  before  the  Pentecost  (ver.  16).  The 
allusion  in  Eom.  xvi.  1  to  "Phoebe  of  Cen- 
cJirece^^  (the  eastern  port  of  Corinth),  and  in 
ver.  23  to  "  Gains  mine  host "  (comp.  1  Cor.  i. 
14),  also  point  to  the  apostle's  residence  at 
Corinth. 

The  gospel  has  now  been  planted  in  a  line 


140  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

of  great  cities,  reaching  from  Jerusalem  west- 
ward to  the  Ionian  Sea.  Ephesus,  with  the 
rich  and  populous  province  of  Asia,  had  occu- 
pied St.  Paul  for  nearly  three  years  past ;  and 
a  powerful  Christianity  was  established  there, 
through  which  the  societies  already  existing 
to  the  east  and  west  of  it  could  join  hands. 
Troas  added  a  last  link,  to  complete  the  chain 
of  Pauline  churches  running  unbroken  from 
Antioch  to  Corinth.  The  revolt  against  St. 
Paul's  authority  and  the  reaction  from  his 
doctrine,  for  a  time  so  threatening,  seem  to 
have  subsided.  The  second  letter  to  Corinth 
completed  the  work  of  the  first,  in  bringing 
that  restless  church  to  reason  and  order.  The 
apostle  addresses  himself  to  the  Eomans  with 
an  ease  of  mind,  a  satisfaction  in  the  con- 
quests already  gained,  and  an  eager  and  hope- 
ful outlook  into  the  future,  in  striking  contrast 
to  the  tone  in  which  he  had  written  to  Corinth 
and  Galatia  a  few  months  before,  and  which 
go  to  show  that  the  winter  sojourn  at  Corinth 
was  a  time  of  peace  and  of  reassurance  to  him 
The  Judaizers  have  now  done  their  worst. 
The  Gentile  churches  have  rallied  to  St.  Paul's 
side.  The  storm  has  spent  itself ;  and  Paul's 
sky  is  clear  again,  inviting  him  to  new  and 
bolder  adventure. 

Borne  now  rises  before  the  apostle's  view. 


TO  THE  EOMANS.  141 

That  miglity  city,  mistress  of  the  world,  centre 
and  crown  of  heathen  civilization,  must  be  the 
next  object  of  his  attack.  Indeed,  his  eye  had 
long  been  fixed  upon  Eome  as  the  goal  of  his 
mission  to  the  heathen.  This  commanding 
position  once  seized,  the  way  would  be  open 
for  advance  to  the  regions  beyond,  until  "  as 
lightning  launched  from  east  to  west"  the 
message  of  Christ  carried  by  Paul  should  have 
reached  the  farthest  limits  of  the  Gentile 
world. 

At  this  juncture,  midway  in  his  career  and 
turning  his  face  to  a  new  world,  the  apostle 
feels  it  incumbent  upon  him  to  deliver  a  form- 
al manifesto.  He  will  give  to  the  Church  a 
full  and  systematic  account  of  the  gospel  that 
he  preaches,  in  view  especially  of  the  vital 
questions  raised  and  debated  in  the  Judaistic 
controversy.  What  could  be  more  timely 
than  to  write  such  an  exposition  of  his  teach- 
ing as  this,  by  way  of  introducing  himself  to 
the  Christians  of  Eome  I  Within  a  few  months 
he  expects  to  find  himself  among  them ;  and 
it  was  most  important  for  the  future  progress 
of  his  work  that  he  should  win  their  support 
(ch.  i.  12,  XV.  24).  He  had  already  a  number 
of  friends,  including  two  kinsmen,  amongst 
the  believers  in  Eome  (assuming  that  ch.  xvi. 
1-16  was  addressed  to  the  church  there).     St. 


142  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Paul  may  well  have  hoped  to  make  Rome  for 
the  west  what  Antioch  had  been  for  the  east, 
— a  mother  city  for  Gentile  Christianity,  a  new 
centre  and  headquarters  for  its  missionary 
movements.  Besides,  he  felt  that  the  Eoman 
church  belonged,  in  an  especial  sense,  to  his 
charge  as  Gentile  apostle  (ch.  i.  10-15,  xv.  15, 
16);  that  it  was  his  duty,  so  soon  as  possi- 
ble, to  carry  his  gospel  to  the  metropolis  of 
paganism. 

Such  an  epistle,  while  it  paved  the  way  for 
his  approaching  visit,  would  at  the  same  time 
fore-arm  this  church  against  the  Judaizing 
agitators,  who  in  all  likelihood  would  soon 
make  their  appearance  at  Eome,  especially  if 
they  heard  of  Paul's  intention  to  establish 
himself  there. 

Add  to  this,  that  in  writing  to  the  obscure 
Christian  community  at  Eome  St.  Paul  feels 
that  he  is  in  some  sort  addressing  the  imperial 
city  itself.  He  writes  as  one  who  speaks  urhi 
et  orhi.  There  rises  before  his  mind  the  image 
of  the  Eoman  city  and  Empire,  which  repre- 
sented on  the  one  hand  all  the  majesty  of 
secular  power  and  civil  rule,  and  on  the  other 
all  the  shame  and  misery  of  Gentile  sin. 

The  above  considerations  may  serve  as  a 
suggestion  of  the  views  with  which  this  letter 
was  composed. 


to  the  romans.  143 

The  Eoman  Chuech. 

The  character  and  constituency  of  the  church 
of  Rome  have  been  much  discussed.  There 
are  two  opposite  views  held  on  the  subject, 
both  deriving  their  support  from  the  epistle. 
Plainly  it  was  a  mixed  chmxJi,  containing  both 
Jewish  and  G-entile  adherents  (see  ch.  ii.  17, 
xi.  13,  etc.).  But  in  what  proportion  were 
these  elements  mingled,  and  what  was  the 
attitude  of  the  Roman  church  towards  the 
great  controversy  of  the  hour?  Those  who 
assert  its  Gentile  complexion  have  in  their 
favor  the  express  language  of  chap.  i.  5,  6  and 
xi.  17-24.  The  opposite  opinion  is  based  on 
the  general  tenor  of  the  epistle, — on  the  fact 
that  its  arguments  are  directed  throughout 
against  Judaistic  objections,  on  the  promi- 
nence given  to  the  problem  of  the  destiny  of 
Israel  (chaps,  ix.-xi.),  and  on  the  specific  ap- 
peal made  to  the  Jewish  conscience  in  chap.  ii. 

The  critics  who  argue  for  the  Jewish  char- 
acter of  the  church  of  Rome  seem,  however, 
to  overlook  the  fact  that  the  earliest  Gentile 
converts  had  been  in  very  many  instances 
proselytes  to  Judaism,  and  had  received  the 
gospel  through  Israelitish  channels ;  of  neces- 
sity, therefore,  they  took  a  lively  interest  in  the 
Jewish  question;  and  the  difficulties  arising 
from  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  the  old 


144  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

religion  pressed  uioon  their  minds  only  less 
severely  than  upon  the  Jewish  Christians^ 
themselves.  On  the  whole,  it  appears  to  us 
most  probable  that  the  early  Roman  church 
contained  a  majority  of  Gentile  Christians, 
but  included  a  considerable  number  of  men  of 
the  circumcision,  who  occupied  an  influential 
position  in  its  ranks.  Had  the  Jewish  element 
been  dominant  amongst  the  Christian  believ- 
ers at  Rome,  had  the  Roman  church  been,  in 
fact,  the  offspring  of  Jerusalem,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  St.  Paul  could  have  claimed  it  as 
falling  within  his  own  province. 

From  the  silence  of  the  epistle  we  gather 
that  this  community  was  not  founded  or 
directed  by  any  single  leader,  whether  apostle 
or  apostolic  man.  The  Church  having  now 
existed  for  nearly  thirty  years,  and  being 
established  in  most  of  the  eastern  cities  of  the 
Empire,  a  Christian  society  would  inevitably 
form  itself  at  Rome ;  for  immigrants  poured 
into  the  metropolis  from  all  the  provinces,  as 
into  London  now,  and  every  sect  and  school 
of  thought  found  itself  represented  there. 
Amongst  the  multitude  "from  every  nation 
under  heaven,"  who  formed  Peter's  congrega- 
tion on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  were  "  sojourners 
from  Rome,  both  Jews  and  proselytes"  (Acts 
ii.  10,  11).     Some  of  these,  we  may  suppose^^ 


TO  THE  KOMANS.  145 

were  numbered  amongst  the  three  thousand 
converts  of  that  day ;  and  they  would  supply 
already  the  nucleus  of  a  mixed  Judaeo-Grentile 
church.  To  these  earliest  Eoman  believers 
Paul's  "kinsmen,  Andronicus  and  Junias,'' 
may  have  belonged,  "who,"  he  says,  "were 
in  Christ  before  me";  they  had  themselves 
done  notable  work  as  messengers  of  Christ — 
"  of  note,"  he  adds,  "  among  the  apostles  "  (ch. 
xvi.  7).  In  addition  to  those  whom  this  first 
circle  of  pentecostal  disciples  gathered  round 
them  in  Rome,  the  church  would  be  constantly 
gaining  accessions  by  the  migration  to  the 
capital  of  families  and  individual  men  con- 
verted to  Christ  in  other  places.  Many  of 
these,  in  all  probability,  came  from  churches 
owning  the  authority  of  St.  Paul;  some  of 
them  were  the  fruit  of  his  own  ministry. 
Hence  the  apostle  could  already,  it  appears, 
count  quite  a  number  of  personal  acquaint- 
ances amongst  the  brethren  in  Rome.  The 
names  he  mentions  (ch.  xvi.  1-16),  if  belong- 
ing to  Rome,  indicate  that  the  church  was  of 
mixed  origin,  Greek  in  its  constituency  rather 
than  Latin,  and  of  catholic  and  cosmopolitan 
affinities.  The  population  of  Rome  was  at 
this  time  largely  of  G-reek  or  Asiatic  birth. 
"The  Orontes,"  as  Juvenal  complains,  "had 
flowed  into  the  Tiber." 


146  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Like  the  rest  of  the  epistles,  this  was  writ- 
ten in  Greek ;  and  the  language  of  the  Roman 
church  continued  to  be  Greek  both  in  its  wor- 
ship and  literature  until  the  end  of  the  second 
century. 

The  church  at  Eome,  therefore,  stood  in  an 
independent  and  yet  sympathetic  and  respect- 
ful attitude  towards  the  apostle  Paul.  This 
we  gather  from  the  tone  of  the  letter;  and 
it  accords  with  the  probabilities  of  the  case. 
There  is  nothing  to  show  that  any  hostility  to 
his  person  or  teaching  as  yet  existed  here. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  likely  that  the  Juda- 
istic  tendency  was  present  in  a  latent  form, 
here  as  elsewhere ;  afterwards  it  became  pro- 
nounced and  bitter,  and  alienated  the  Jewish 
Christians  from  Paul  at  the  time  when  he 
most  needed  their  sympathy  (Phil.  i.  15-17 ; 
Col.  iv.  11;  2  Tim.  iv.  16).  At  present, 
however,  this  church,  while  evangelical  in  its 
principles  and  in  accord  with  the  Pauline  doc- 
trines, so  far  as  it  understood  them,  was  prob- 
ably defective  in  its  theological  knowledge, 
and  not  sufficiently  aware  of  the  danger  threat- 
ening it  from  legalism,  nor  alive  to  the  gravity 
of  the  crisis  through  which  Christianity  was 
passing.  The  only  view  indicated  in  the  let- 
ter which  approaches  heterodoxy,  is  that  of 
"  the  weak,"  referred  to  in  chap,  xiv.,  who  held 


TO   THE  EOMANS.  147 

ascetic  notions  respecting  food,  that  caused 
dissension  between  them  and  their  brethren. 
Their  principles  were  of  an  Essenic  rather 
than  a  Pharisaic  type,  and  resembled  the  more 
developed  asceticism  inculcated  shortly  after- 
wards by  the  false  teacher  of  CoIosssb  (Col.  ii. 
16-23). 

In  passing  from  Gralatians  to  Romans,  one 
is  impressed  by  the  conciliatory  spirit  in  which 
the  writer  deals  with  Judaism.  While  vindi- 
cating more  thoroughly  than  ever  his  univer- 
sal gospel,  Paul  is  wishful  to  disarm  the  prej- 
udices of  Jewish  Christians  and  to  meet  all 
just  objections  on  their  part.  In  taking  this 
course,  he  is  only  following  the  dictates  of  his 
own  heart,  and  tracing  out  the  way  in  which 
his  own  birth  and  calling  had  been  reconciled 
— in  which  the  Grentile  apostle  and  the  ardent 
Jewish  patriot  within  him  had  come  to  an 
understanding.  This  change  of  tone  is  due, 
we  presume,  to  the  absence  of  aggression  on 
the  part  of  Jewish  Christians  at  Rome,  as  well 
as  to  the  abating  of  the  contest  in  Corinth  and 
the  appeasement  of  the  storm  within  the  apos- 
tle's own  breast. 

Threefold  Conclusion  of  the  Epistle. 
The  letter,  while  written  expressly  for  the 
church  of  Rome,  is  of  so  general  a  character 


148  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

that  it  may  well  have  been  utilized  for  the 
benefit  of  other  churches  at  the  same  time.  It 
would  be  felt  that  this  exposition  of  the  apos- 
tle's doctrine,  so  full  and  so  timely,  ought  to 
be  widely  circulated.  The  alteration  of  a  few 
words  in  chap,  i.,  the  omission  of  a  paragraph 
or  two  in  chap,  xv.,  with  salutations  and  ben- 
ediction adapted  to  each  case,  would  make 
the  epistle  serve  for  other  readers.  The  com- 
bining afterwards  of  three  of  these  various 
endings  may  explain  the  threefold  conclusion 
of  the  epistle  (ch.  xv.  33,  xvi.  20,  27),  which 
has  always  been  a  stumbling-block.  On  this 
theory,  it  is  conjectured  by  some  good  schol- 
ars that  the  list  of  greetings  contained  in  chap, 
xvi.  1-16  was  addressed  in  reality  not  to  Bome, 
but  to  some  other  place — most  probably  to 
Epliesus ;  for  "  Priscilla  and  Aquila  "  were  last 
heard  of  there  (ver.  3,  comp.  Acts  xviii.  19), 
and  there  we  meet  with  them  again,  in  2  Tim. 
iv.  19 ;  "  Epsenetus,"  moreover,  is  greeted  as 
"the  firstfruits  of  Asia  ^^  (ver.  5);  add  to  this, 
that  "  Phoebe,"  the  bearer  of  the  letter,  is  in- 
troduced as  "  deaconess  of  the  church  that  is 
in  Cenchrese."  Now,  Cenchrese  was  the  east- 
ern port  of  Corinth,  the  port  of  departure  for 
JEphesus  (Acts  xviii.  18, 19) ;  but  its  name  can 
scarcely  have  had  the  same  interest  for  the 
Eomans.    At   Ephesus   St.  Paul  had  spent 


TO   THE   EOMANS.  149 

great  part  of  three  years;  and  there  lie  had 
a  multitude  of  friends.  There  is,  however,  as 
we  have  seen,  no  real  difficulty  in  supposing 
these  numerous  and  detailed  greetings  ad- 
dressed to  Rome ;  and  the  apostle  wished  to 
strengthen  every  link  which  bound  him  to  his 
brethren  in  the  imperial  city. 

Analysis  of  Eomans. 

This  is  St.  Paul's  magnum  opus.  Here  we 
see  him  at  his  greatest  as  a  constructive  thinker 
and  theologian.  The  epistle  to  the  Eomans  is 
the  complete  and  mature  expression  of  the 
apostle's  main  doctrines,  which  it  unfolds  in 
due  order  and  proportion,  and  combines  into 
an  organic  whole.  No  other  New  Testament 
writing,  except  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
approaches  so  nearly  the  character  of  a  doc- 
trinal treatise.  For  the  purposes  of  systematic 
theology,  it  is  the  most  important  book  in  the 
Bible.  More  than  any  other,  it  has  deter- 
mined the  course  of  Christian  thought  in  its 
most  fruitful  epochs ;  its  texts  and  definitions 
have  been  the  battle-ground  of  momentous 
conflicts  in  the  history  of  the  Church. 

This  epistle  follows  the  internal  develop- 
ment of  its  own  thought,  unaffected  by  local 
circumstances  or  associations  of  personal  feel- 
ing.   Here,  again,  it  stands  in  sharp  contrast 


150  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

with  the  companion  letters  of  its  group.  Its 
analysis  is,  therefore,  comparatively  easy,  and 
at  the  same  time  of  great  importance.  The 
doctrinal  argument  of  the  epistle  forms  its 
main  body,  extending  from  chap.  i.  16  to  xi.  36. 
This  is  followed  by  a  hortatory  section  (ch.  xii. 
1-xv.  13).  Personal  matter  is  confined  to  the 
Introduction  (ch.  i.  1-15)  and  Conclusion 
(ch.  XV.  14-xvi.  27). 

The  Introduction  consists — 

(1)  Of  an  elaborate  and  formal  greeting  {yy.  1-7),  con- 
taining an  epitome  of  the  gospel  (vv.  1-4),  and  an  an- 
nouncement of  the  writer's  apostleship  (vv.  5,  6) ; 

(2)  A  statement  of  his  feelings  towards  the  Roman 
church  (vv.  8-15) — his  thankfulness  for  their  widely  known 
faith,  his  constant  prayers  for  them,  his  wishes  and  en- 
deavors to  see  them,  and  the  debt  he  owes  to  them  as  being 
the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

The  Doctrine  of  the  epistle  concerns  two 
topics,  which  we  may  call  principal  and  subor- 
dinate :  {A)  that  of  tlie  salvation  of  Jews  and 
Gentiles  alike  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ 
(ch.  i.  16-viii.  39),  which  is  formally  enunciated 
in  chap.  i.  16,  17 ;  and  (B)  that  of  the  rejection 
of  the  Jeivish  nation  as  the  people  of  God  (ch. 
ix.-xi.). 

A.  The  Gospel  of  the  Common  Salva- 
tion; OR,  THE  Revelation  of  the  Divine 
Righteousness  of  Faith. 


TO  THE  ROMANS.  151 

The  treatment  of  this  chief  topic  presents 
several  well-marked  sections,  treating — 

§  1.  Of  the  guilty  condition  of  mankind,  chap.  i.  18- 
iii.  20  : 

{a)  Notorious  in  tlie  case  of  the  Gentiles,  whose  idolatry 
by  God's  just  judgment  had  borne  fruit  in  abomi- 
nable vice  (i.  18-32) ; 

(b)  Concealed  and  excused,  but  no  less  real  and  still 

more  culpable  in  the  Jews  (ii.  1-iii.  8)  5 

(c)  The  unive7'sal  indictment  being  summed  up  in  words 

of  Scripture  (ch.  iii.  9-20). 

§  2.  God's  method  of  making  men  righteous,  chap.  iii. 
21-v.  21  : 

(a)  By  a  free  gift  of  pardon,  on  condition  of  faith, 
grounded  on  Christ's  redemptive  sacrifice,  and  in 
harmony  with  God's  personal  righteousness — this 
being  the  ground  of  the  provisional  forgiveness  at- 
tained under  the  law — that  is,  in  a  word,  by  justi- 
fication (iii.  21-31) ; 

(6)  This  method  illustrated  and  defended  by  the  case  of 
Abraham,  father  of  believers,  whose  was  a  right- 
eousness of  faith  resting  not  on  his  own  perform- 
ances but  on  the  supernatural  power  of  God,  certi- 
fied to  him  by  the  word  of  promise,  which  looked 
on  to  Christ  (ch.  iv.) ; 

(c)  This  method  vindicated  by  its  experimental  effects 
(ch.  V.  1-11) ; 

{d)  The  method  traced  to  its  origin  and  creative  ground, 
as  it  derives  our  salvation  from  Christ,  the  spiritual 
head  of  the  race,  in  a  manner  parallel  to  and  coun- 
tervailing that  in  which  our  sin  and  death  flow  from 
Adam,  the  natural  progenitor  (vv.  12-21). 


152  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

§  3.  The  Cliristian  righteousness  our  death  to  sin;  or, 
Justification  involving  Sanctification^  chaps,  vi. ,  vii.  This 
is  argued  first  positively^  and  that  in  two  ways  : 

{a)  As  matter  of  principle,  on  the  ground  that  faith 
unites  the  believer  with  Christ  not  in  His  death 
alone,  but  in  His  resurrection  and  heavenly  life^ 
its  necessary  sequel,  a  double  truth  symbolized  by 
baptism  (vi.  1-14) ;  and 

(6)  As  a  matter  of  fact  and  experience,  since  the  Chris- 
tian in  becoming  such  committed  himself  by  his 
own  act  to  God's  holy  service,  with  its  fruit  in  life 
eternal  (vi.  15-23). 

The  same  consequence  is  established  negatively :  it  is 
shown  that  there  is  no  other  way  of  holiness  ;  for 

(c)  This  is  "what  the  law  could  not  do,"  since  under 

law  our  nature  gave  hirth  to  nothing  hut  sin,  till  in 
Christ's  death  this  union  was  dissolved  and  we  were 
wedded  to  the  risen,  life-giving  Lord  (vii.  1-6) ; 

(d)  This,  finally,  Paul  illustrates  by  his  own  experience, 

showing  by  his  moral  history,  from  childhood  up- 
wards, how  a  tetter  knowledge  of  the  laiv  only  led 
to  a  more  hopeless  enslavement  to  sin,  till  he  was 
rescued  by  Jesus  Christ  (vii.  7-25). 

§  4.  Tlie  Christiaii  righteousness  the  redemption  of  our 
whole  nature,  chap.  viii. : 

{a)  It  brings  present  salvation  from  the  guilt  of  sin 
(vv.  1-4),  and  from  its  power  over  the  mind 
(vv.  5-9)  and  even  over  the  body  (vv.  10-13) ; 

(6)  It  makes  us  sons  and  heirs  of  God,  in  fellowship 
with  Christ  (vv.  14-17) ; 

(c)  It  assures  us  of  a  future  glory,  in  which  along  with 
our  redeemed  body  the  material  creation  will  par- 
ticipate (vv.  18-25)  ; 

{d)  It  supplies  effectual  help  in  prayer,  confidence  in  all 
events,  and  the  certainty  that  the  univei'se  of  God 


TO   THE   KOMANS.  153 

conspires  to  bless  us  as  the  objects  of  His  love  in 
Christ  (vv.  26-39). 
(e)  Through  this  eptire  chain  of  blessings  runs  tJie  be- 
stowment  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  gives  them 
their  unity  and  their  reality  to  our  consciousness. 

B.  The  Eepbobation  of  the  Jewish  Peo- 
ple. 

This  second  topic  rose  immediately  ont  of 
the  first.  For  if  the  gospel  just  expounded  is 
"God's  power  unto  salvation"  and  "to  the 
Jew  first,"  how  is  it  that  the  Jewish  people, 
who  should  be  the  best  judges  of  its  value,  are 
everywhere  rejecting  it?  and  that  many  even 
of  those  who  accept  it  differ  radically  from  St. 
Paul  in  their  views  of  its  nature,  and  are,  as 
he  maintains,  virtually  drawing  back  from  it  ? 
For  the  apostle  this  was  a  most  distressing 
problem,  wounding  to  his  heart,  while  it  threw 
continual  and  mortifying  hindrances  in  the 
way  of  his  mission.  So  important  was  the 
question  of  the  attitude  of  Judaism  towards 
the  gospel  that  some  excellent  interpreters 
think  that  it  formed  in  reality  the  motive  of 
the  whole  epistle,  and  that  the  treatment  of 
the  former  theme  was  designed  mainly  to  lead 
up  to  this.  Certainly,  the  writer  has  the  second 
topic  in  view  throughout  the  previous  chapters. 

God  promised  salvation  to  his  people  at  the 
Messiah's  coming.  That  Messiah  has  come; 
and  yet  they  are  rejecting  Him  to  their  own 


154  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

ruin !  "  Either,  then,  those  promises  or  your 
gospel  is  false ! "  Such  was  the  dilemma  in 
which  the  apostle  was  placed  by  his  opponents 
(note  his  counter-assertion  in  ch.  xv.  8).  Its 
fallacy  lies,  as  he  is  quick  to  show,  in  the  am- 
biguity of  the  essential  middle  term — the  peo- 
ple  of  God.  They  are  not  the  hereditary  Jew- 
ish nation,  but  God's  elect  in  every  age — the 
men  of  faith.  This  he  proves  from  the  Old 
Testament,  and  so  wrests  from  their  hands  his 
enemies'  logical  weapon  and  turns  its  keen 
edge  upon  themselves. 

Expressing  first  his  intense  sorrow  for  his  fellow-coun- 
trymen, who  refused  the  gospel  despite  their  glorious  priv- 
ileges, he  aflBrms  that,  notwithstanding,  God^s  word  has 
not  failed  (ver.  6).  This  is  the  thesis  of  chaps,  ix.-xi., 
just  as  chap.  i.  16,  17  is  of  i.-viii. 

§  1.  God's  ivord  has  not  failed;  for  He  is  acting  as  He 
has  ever  done,  in  the  right  of  His  own  free  and  sovereign 
election^  whether  in  favor  or  punishment,  uncontrolled  by 
natural  claims  and  human  wishes,*  chap.  ix.  6-29.  The 
apostle's  purpose  here  is  not  to  disprove  man's  freedom  and 

^  Observe  that  "the  wdller  and  the  runner"  of  Eom.  ix. 
15,  16  (quoted  from  Exod.  xxxiii.  19,  where  the  entire  eon- 
text  must  be  taken  into  account)  is  Moses,  willing  and  run- 
ning on  behalf  of  the  sinful  people.  "  To  Moses  He  saith : 
I  will  have  mercy  on  whomsoever  I  have  mercy,"  etc.  So 
Paul  was  now  "  willing  and  running "  with  all  his  might  to 
save  his  Israelitish  brethren ;  and  yet  he  knew  that  he  had 
failed !  God  yields  His  prerogative  to  no  man.  To  the 
prayer  of  Moses  He  allows  much;  but  even  Moses  cannot 
force  the  Almighty's  hand,  nor  dictate  an  act  of  mercy  to 


TO  THE  EOMANS.  155 

self-determination,  but  to  defend  God's  freedom  as  Ruler 
of  men  against  Jewish  dictation. 

§  2.  God''s  word  has  not  failed ;  but  Israel  rejects  His 
method  of  salvation  by  faith^  preferring  to  work  out  its 
own  righteousness  rather  than  to  receive  that  which  God 
offers,  chap.  ix.  30-x.  21. 

§  3.  God's  word  has  not  failed ;  for  Israel  will  yet  be 
saved,  chap.  xi.  Its  present  rejection  of  the  gospel  pro- 
motes the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  from  whom  it  will 
finally  come  back  to  Israel,  when  the  programme  of  the 
world's  salvation  will  be  completed. 

So  the  apostle  makes  the  objection  disposed 
of  under  his  second  thesis  serve  to  carry  for- 
ward the  argument  of  the  first  to  its  cHmax. 
Chap.  xi.  crowns  the  description  of  the  salva- 
tion of  the  individual  in  chap,  viii.,  by  the  rep- 
resentation given  in  its  concluding  verses  of 
the  final  salvation  of  the  world.  His  theodicy 
terminates  in  a  rapturous  doxology  (ch.  xi. 
33-36) :  "  Oh  the  depth !  " 

The  Exhoetation. 

The  practical  part  of  the  epistle  may  be  very 
briefly  summarized,  chap.  xii.  1-xv.  13 : 

another  contrary  to  the  Divine  will  and  judgment.  Neither 
here  nor  anywhere  is  it  hinted  that  the  sinner,  for  himself, 
willing  and  running  to  seek  mercy,  may  yet  miss  it !  God 
fordid!  the  apostle  would  have  cried,  had  he  heard  of  any 
so  reading  his  words.  Has  he  not  said  in  the  very  next  chap- 
ter (ver.  13),  ''Whosoever  shall  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord 
shall  be  saved  "  ? 


156  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

§  1.  It  dwells  in  general  terms — 

(a)  On  consecration  to  God  (ch.  xii.  1,  2), 

(6)   Sober  estimation  of  one's  self  {yy.  3-8),  and — 

(c)  Brotherly  conduct  towards  others  (vv.  9-31). 

{d)  On  civil  obedience  (xiii.  1-7), 

(e)   On  neighborly  duty  (vv.  8-10), 

(/)  On  Christian  watchfulness  (vv.  11-14). 

§  2.  More  specifically  the  apostle  deals  with  the  question 
of  doubtful  meats,  and  the  disputes  connected  with  it, 
chap.  xiv.  1-xv.  13.     He  enjoins  on  his  readers — 

(a)  Mutual  respect  for  each  other'' s  convictions,  especial- 
ly in  view  of  our  responsibility  to  God  (xiv.  1-12)  ; 

(6)  The  subordination  of  all  such  matters  to  the  spiritual 
interests  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  (xiv.  13-23) ; 
and — 

(c)  Devotion  to  the  unity  of  the  Church,  after  Christ's 
example  (xv.  1-12). 

This  is  followed  by  a  prayer  for  joy  and  peace  in  believ- 
ing (ver.  13). 

The  Conclusion  consists — 

(1)  Of  an  apology  for  writing  to  the  Romans,  chap.  xv. 
14-21  ; 

(2)  An  account  of  PaiW^s  position  and  intentions, 
vv.  22-32  ; 

(3)  A  benediction,  which  seems  the  natural  close  of  the 
letter,  ver.  33. 

We  have  abeady  spoken  of  the  Postscript 
(ch.  xvi.),  with  its  long  and  varied  list  of 
greetings — ^by  far  the  longest  in  the  epistles — 
closed  by  a  solemn  warning  and  a  second  hen- 
ediction  (w.  17-20).     Then  comes  another  brief 


TO   THE   EOMANS.  157 

list  of  mutual  greetings  (vv.  21-23),  closed  by 
afidl  doxology,  in  the  style  of  the  third  group 
of  the  Pauhne  letters,  to  which  we  shall  next 
proceed  (vv.  24-27). 

We  will  paraphrase  the  following  passages : 

Chap.  iii.  21-31.— "Now,  however,  we  have  disclosed 
to  us  a  righteousness  of  God,  that  rests  on  another  basis 
than  that  of  law,  though  both  law  and  prophets  bear  wit- 
ness to  it.  -It  is  a  righteousness  imparted  through  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ,— imparted  to  all  believers  alike.  To  all,  I 
say  ;  for  all  had  sinned,  all  have  lost  the  approval  of  God. 
Man's  justification  is  gratuitous  :  it  is  wrought  by  God's 
grace,  and  by  means  of  the  redemption  that  is  in  Christ 
Jesus.  Him  God  set  forth  openly,— a  bleeding  sacrifice, 
availing  through  faith  to  expiate  our  sin.  Thus  God  man- 
ifests His  righteousness.  He  has  shown  how  He  could  pass 
by  the  transgressions  of  former  times  and  deal  in  forbear- 
ance with  the  world,  waiting  for  the  full  disclosure  of  that 
righteousness  made  in  our  day,  when  we  see  God  both  just 
Himself  and  the  Justifier  of  him  who  believes  in  Jesus. 

"'Where,  then,'  you  ask,  'is  our  Jewish  boasting?' 
It  is  excluded.  '  What  law  forbids  it  ? '  The  law  of  faith, 
to  be  sure  ;  not  that  of  works.  For  our  argument  is  that 
man  is  justified  by  faith,  and  that  his  works  can  never  jus- 
tify him.  Do  you  think  that  God  is  a  God  of  Jews  only  ? 
Is  He  not  the  God  of  Gentiles  too  ?  Yes,  if  '  God  is  one ' 
(Deut.  vi.  4) ;  and  He  will  justify  circumcised  men  by  faith, 
and  uncircumcised  men  through  the  same  faith.  '  We  are 
abolishing  law,'  you  say,  '  by  this  principle  of  faith '  ?  Not 
in  the  least :  we  rather  establish  it ! " 

Chap.  v.  12-31. — "It  was  one  man  through  whom  sin 
entered  the  world,  and  death  through  sin.  Thus  death 
reached  all  men,  as  all  in  fact  committed  sin  (iii.  33).    For 


158  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

there  was  sin  in  the  world  before  (Moses')  law ;  and  the 
imputation  of  sin  shows  that,  in  some  sense,  there  was 
law  all  the  while.*  From  Adam  down  to  Moses  death 
reigned  as  king,  even  over  men  that  had  not  sinned  as 
Adam  did,  in  transgression  against  revealed  law.  Now, 
Adam  is  the  type  of  the  Coming  One. 

"But  there  is  a  difference  between  the  trespass  and  the 
gift  of  grace.  Through  the  trespass  of  that  one,  the  many- 
died.  If  so,  then  God's  grace,  and  the  gift  that  comes  by 
the  grace  of  the  one  man  Jesus  Christ,  has  overflowed  in 
far  greater  degree  to  the  many.  Again,  it  was  from  the 
trespass  of  a  single  sinner  that  the  judgment  began,  which 
issued  in  our  condemnation  ;  the  gift  of  grace  brings  men 
to  justification  out  of  many  trespasses.  Surely  if  one  man's 
trespass  established  the  reign  of  death,  much  more  must 
those  reign  in  life  through  that  other  one,  Jesus  Christ, 
who  receive  His  abounding  grace  and  gift  of  righteousness. 

"We  come,  then,  to  this  conclusion:  that  as  one  tres- 
pass was  the  means  of  bringing  all  men  into  condemnation, 
so  one  act  of  righteousness  is  the  means  of  bringing  all  men 
to  justification  and  life.  Through  the  disobedience  of  one 
man  the  many  were  constituted  sinners ;  so  through  the 
obedience  of  one  the  many  will  be  constituted  righteous. 
Law  intervened  by  the  way,  in  order  to  multiply  the  tres- 
pass ;  but  where  sin  multiplied,  grace  even  more  abounded. 
So  that,  finally,  as  sin  has  reigned  triumphing  in  death,  in 
like  manner  grace  is  to  reign  by  means  of  righteousness 
unto  life  eternal,  through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord." 

Chap.  ix.  14-24. — "  What  are  we  then  to  say  about  such 
cases  as  that  of  Jacob  and  Esau  ?  Is  God  unjust  in  mak- 
ing this  election  ?     Far  be  that  from  Him !     Remember 

*  We  must  admit  that  this  is  not  the  ordinary  interpreta- 
tion of  ver.  13.  But  see  chap.  ii.  14;  also  chap.  viii.  2  {the 
law  of  sin  and  death),  and  1  Cor.  xv.  56,  showing  that  in 
St.  Paul's  mind  law,  sin,  and  death  are  concomitants. 


TO   THE  KOMANS.  159 

what  He  said  to  Moses :  '  I  will  have  mercy  on  whomso- 
ever I  have  mercy,  and  will  pity  whomsoever  I  may  pity.' 
Clearly  the  choice  lies  not  with  the  willing  and  striving 
man,  but  with  the  mercy-showing  God.  Take  Pharaoh's 
case,  on  the  other  hand:  'For  this  very  purpose,'  says 
God,  '  I  raised  thee  up  to  such  a  height,  that  I  might  man- 
ifest in  thee  My  power  and  have  My  name  proclaimed 
throughout  the  earth.'  He  shows  mercy,  you  see,  or  He 
hardens,  in  each  case  as  He  will.  [In  other  words,  God's 
will  is  absolutely  free.  He  can  act  upon  His  own  judg- 
ment in  dealing  with  human  affairs.  None  may  share, 
none  can  defy  His  prerogative.] 

"  'But  if  He  is  Almighty,'  some  one  asks,  'what  right 
has  He  to  find  fault  with  His  creatures  ? '  What  right  have 
you,  I  reply,  a  mere  man,  to  debate  with  God  ?  How  shall 
the  creature  say  to  its  Creator,  Why  hast  Thou  thus  made 
me  ?  The  potter  surely  is  master  of  his  clay.  It  is  his 
to  choose  which  part  of  the  lump  shall  be  made  into  a  fine 
and  which  into  a  baser  vessel.  The  case  may  be  that  God, 
though  resolved  to  make  an  example  of  His  displeasure 
and  His  sovereign  power,  has  with  great  longsuffering 
borne  with  vessels  of  tvrath^  fit  for  nothing  but  destruc- 
tion ;  purposing  at  the  same  time  to  make  known  the 
riches  of  His  glory  in  vessels  of  mercy ^  that  He  had  pre- 
pared for  this  end — I  mean  ourselves,  whom  He  called  into 
His  kingdom  from  the  ranks  of  the  Gentiles  as  weU  as  the 
Jews." 


CHAPTER  IX. 

transition  to  the  thied  group. 

Address  at  Miletus. 

Early  in  the  year  59  A.D.,  St.  Paul  had  fin- 
ished his  letter  to  the  Romans,  and  thus  con- 
cluded one  great  epoch  of  his  life  and  work. 
He  now  set  his  face  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem. 
As  we  have  already  seen  (Rom.  xv.  30-32),  he 
looked  forward  to  this  visit  with  grave  appre- 
hensions. As  he  journeyed  through  Macedo- 
nia and  along  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Syi'ia,  the  shadows  deepened  across  his  path. 
"  Bound  in  the  spirit,"  he  says  to  the  Ephesian 
elders,  "I  go  to  Jerusalem,  not  knowing  the 
things  that  will  befall  me  there.  The  Holy 
Spirit  in  every  city  witnesseth  that  bonds  and 
afflictions  await  me "  (Acts  xx.  22,  23 ;  comp. 
xxi.  4,  10-14).  But  he  had  not  the  least 
thought  of  turning  from  his  course.  "  What 
mean  ye,"  he  cries,  as  the  brethren  at  one 
place  and  another  flung  their  arms  about  him 
to  hold  him  back — "what  are  you  doing, 
weeping  and  breaking  my  heart  ?  I  am  ready 
not  only  to  be  bound,  but  even  to  die  at  Jeru- 

160 


TEANSITION   TO   THE   THIED   GROUP.        161 

salem  for  tlie  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus."  His 
voyage  was  a  series  of  farewells,  that  grew 
more  and  more  affecting  as  he  approached  the 
Jewish  capital.  This  journey  of  St.  Paul's 
reminds  us  of  nothing  so  much  as  of  our 
Lord's  last  journey  to  Jerusalem.  Was  the 
apostle,  like  his  Master,  about  to  accomplish 
his  decease  at  this  fatal  city,  the  murderess  of 
her  prophets  ?  Was  his  sun  now  to  set,  at  its 
high  noon  ! 

The  addi^ess  delivered  at  Miletus  is,  in  effect, 
a  valedictory  charge  (Acts  xx.  17-35).  St. 
Paul  is  bidding  good-bye  to  those  whom  he 
had  set  in  charge  of  the  great  church  of 
Ephesus,  the  fruit  of  his  three  years'  labor 
there.  "  My  face,"  he  says,  "  you  will  never 
see  again  "  (ver.  25) ;  and  it  is  a  needless  in- 
ference from  1  Tim.  i.  3  to  suppose  that  he 
did  afterwards  revisit  this  city.  Four  long 
years  were  to  pass  before  any  of  the  Gentile 
churches  would  see  again  the  face  of  their  be- 
loved father  in  Christ.  From  this  standpoint, 
anticipating  the  termination  of  his  ministry, 
St.  Paul  reviews  the  past.  He  describes  "  the 
ministry  which  he  had  received  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  "  under  three  expressions,  which  define 
admirably  the  principles  and  method  of  his 
teaching:  he  has  "gone  about  preaching 
(heralding)  the  kingdom''^  (ver.  25;  comp.  1  and 


162  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

2  Thessalonians) ;  he  has  "  testified  the  gospel 
of  the  grace  of  Grod  "  (ver.  24 ;  comp.  Romans 
— Gralatians) ;  and  in  the  unfolding  and  en- 
forcement of  this  message  he  "did  not  shun 
to  declare  all  the  counsel  of  Grod,"  he  has  "  kept 
back  nothing  of  what  was  profitable  "  (w.  20, 
27), — recall  the  rich  practical  and  moral  infer- 
ences drawn  from  the  Pauline  gospel  in  the 
earlier  epistles. 

But  along  with  these  reminders  and  this 
touching  review  of  the  past,  there  are  words 
of  warning  that  throw  a  piercing  glance  into 
the  future.  If  St.  Paul  "knew  not  what 
things  awaited  "  himseK,  he  foresaw  the  strug- 
gle that  awaited  in  his  absence  the  Asiatic 
churches.  "I  know  that  there  will  enter 
amongst  you  after  my  departure  grievous 
wolves,  not  sparing  the  flock;  and  out  of 
yourselves  there  will  rise  up  men  speaking 
perverse  things,  to  draw  away  the  disciples 
after  them"  (vv.  29,  30).  He  seems  to  say, 
like  Jesus  to  the  Twelve,  ''One  of  you  shall 
betray  me !  "  This  is  a  clear  prediction  of  the 
rise  of  heresy  within  the  G-entile  Church.  The 
errors  which  St.  Paul  previously  opposed  were 
of  a  reactionary  character,  and  arose  almost 
inevitably  from  the  connection  of  Christianity 
with  Judaism,  and  in  the  process  of  transition 
from  the  old  faith  to  the  new.     But  now  we 


TEANSITION  TO   THE  THIED  GEOUP.        163 

descry  the  approach  of  a  storm  from  another 
quarter.  A  new  conflict  is  impending ;  a  fer- 
ment is  beginning  to  work,  generated  by  the 
progress  of  the  gospel,  and  that  will  arise  out 
of  the  bosom  of  the  Church.  The  doctrine  of 
Christ  will  itself  be  poisoned  and  i3erverted; 
and  wolves  will  harry  the  flock  under  the 
guise  of  shepherds.  These  forebodings  were 
realized  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  by  the 
appearance  of  the  Colossian  heresy  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ephesus,  and  by  the  further 
advance  of  the  same  type  of  error  indicated 
in  the  last  letters  of  the  apostle  written  to 
Timothy  and  Titus. 

St.  Paul's  instructions  to  the  elders  of  Eph- 
esus not  only  point  out  the  danger  lying  in 
the  Church's  path,  they  indicate  the  means 
by  which  it  is  to  be  combated, — the  very 
means  by  which  we  shall  find  the  apostle 
himself  counter- working  this  evil  in  the  epis- 
tles that  now  await  our  review.  "  Take  heed 
to  yourselves,"  he  says,  "and  to  all  the  flock 
in  which  the  Holy  Grhost  appointed  you  over- 
seers (or  bishops),  to  shepherd  the  flock  of 
God,  which  He  acquired  by  His  own  blood. 
...  I  commit  you  to  the  Lord,  and  to  the 
word  of  His  grace,  which  is  able  to  build  you 
up  and  to  give  you  the  inheritance  amongst 
all  those  who   are  sanctified"   (vv.   28,  32). 


164  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

These  words  are  full  of  significance.  They 
mark  the  point  at  which  the  apostle's  ministry 
assumes  a  mainly  pastoral,  instead  of  a  mainly 
evangelistic  character  and  aim.  His  work 
becomes  conservative  rather  than  aggressive. 
The  care  of  the  Church  is  from  this  time  his 
chief  and  absorbing  concern.  The  letter  to 
the  Ephesians,  the  most  labored  and  com- 
plete of  his  later  epistles,  is  written  for  the 
"building  up  of  the  body  of  Christ."  His 
thoughts  are  centred  on  the  conception  of 
the  Christian  community, — in  its  relations  to 
Christ  and  to  God,  to  the  counsels  of  eternity 
and  the  angelic  powers ;  in  its  influence  upon 
individual  character  and  outward  life;  and 
in  the  realization  of  man's  collective  destiny, 
which  is  to  be  accomplished  by  its  means. 
Paul's  ideal  of  the  Church  rises  to  its  lofty 
and  grand  proportions  under  the  low  roof  of 
his  prison  lodging  at  Rome.  In  the  building 
of  the  Church,  in  the  consciousness  of  her 
corporate  life,  in  the  development  of  her  or- 
ganization, in  her  increased  intelligence  and 
moral  strength,  in  her  fuller  sense  of  union 
with  Christ  and  her  more  complete  possession 
by  His  Spirit,  lies  the  hope  of  her  salvation 
amid  the  fierce  conflicts  and  dissensions  that 
will  shortly  burst  forth  around  her. 

Side  by  side  with  this   expansion  of  the 


TRANSITION  TO   THE   THIED   GEOUP.        165 

apostle's  doctrine  of  the  Church,  his  teaching 
on  the  Person  of  Christ  is  correspondingly 
deepened  and  enriched;  for  these  two  truths 
are  complementary,  and  wedded  to  each  other. 
Colossians  and  Ephesians,  the  two  doctrinal 
epistles  of  this  group,  speak  throughout  "  con- 
cerning Christ  and  the  Church''  (Eph.  v.  32). 
This  is  their  "  mystery,"  the  burden  of  their 
revelation,  even  as  Christ  and  the  cross  was  the 
mystery  of  the  last  group  of  the  epistles. 

The  Situation  of  the  Apostle. 

The  four  writings  which  we  have  now  to 
consider— Colossians,  Philemon,  Ephesians, 
Philippians— are  prison  letters.  You  hear  in 
each  of  them  the  clank  of  the  chain  upon  the 
writer's  arm.  He  is  suffering  for  the  cause 
of  Gentile  Christianity ;  and  he  glories  in  it 
(Eph.  iii.  1,  13;  Col.  i.  24).  His  arrest  and 
long  imprisonment,  to  all  appearance  so  ca- 
lamitous, "  have  turned  out  rather  to  the  fur- 
therance of  the  gospel"  (Phil.  i.  12).  In  C^s- 
area  his  confinement  was  somewhat  close,  and 
only  private  friends  were  allowed  access  to 
him  (Acts  xxiv.  23) ;  but  at  Rome,  where  he 
remained  awaiting  his  trial  for  two  years,  the 
apostle  was  kept  in  what  was  called  "free 
custody,"  being  allowed  to  live  under  guard- 
chained  by  one  wrist  to  a  soldier— in  his  own 


166  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

hired  house,  and  to  preach  and  converse  freely 
with  all  who  came  to  him  (xxviii.  30,  31).  In 
this  way  he  carried  on  an  effective  ministry, 
his  position  as  a  military  prisoner  bringing 
him  into  contact  with  many  in  the  camp  and 
the  imperial  household  whom  he  could  not 
otherwise  have  reached  (Phil.  i.  13).  He  had 
become  an  object  of  public  interest  and  sym- 
pathy in  Rome,  pleading  for  Christ  as  an 
'•  ambassador  in  bonds  "  (Eph.  vi.  19,  20).  His 
arrival  at  the  city  and  the  courage  and  energy 
which  he  showed  under  these  adverse  circum- 
stances proved  a  great  stimulus  to  the  Roman 
church,  and  led  on  all  hands  to  a  more  vigor- 
ous prosecution  of  the  work  of  Christ. 

There  were  "some  indeed,"  animated  by 
Judaistic  feeling  (comjD.  Phil.  i.  15,  17  with 
Col.  iv.  11),  whose  zeal  was  due  to  "  envy  and 
strife,"  who  did  their  utmost  to  oppose  Paul's 
influence  and  aggravate  his  trials ;  but  even 
in  their  activity  he  rejoiced,  for  it  helped  to 
diffuse  the  knowledge  of  Christ.  With  all  its 
drawbacks,  St.  Paul's  situation  at  Rome  (62- 
63  A.D.)  brought  considerable  advantages  with 
it.  He  endured  its  privations  with  the  utmost 
cheerfulness.  Never  had  his  experience  been 
so  joyous  or  his  confidence  in  the  cause  of 
Christ  so  high  as  when  he  wrote  to  the  Colos- 
sians  (ch.  i.  6)  and  Philippians  (ch.  i.  19,  20), 


TRANSITION   TO   THE   THIED   GROUP.        167 

towards  the  end  of  tliis  captivity ;  never  had 
he  been  so  sensibly  assured  that  all  things 
were  working  together  for  good,  both  for  him- 
self and  for  the  kingdom  of  God. 

What  we  thus  learn  as  to  Paul's  relations  to 
the  church  of  Rome  held  good  in  regard  to  the 
Church  at  large.  The  apostle  had  become,  in 
the  most  public  manner  possible,  a  martyr  for 
Christ.  His  attempted  murder  in  Jerusalem, 
his  trial  before  the  Sanhedrin  and  at  the  Pro- 
curator's court,  his  appeal  to  Caesar,  his  peril- 
ous voyage  and  long  detention  in  Eome, — all 
this  train  of  events  fixed  the  attention  and 
admiration  of  his  fellow-believers  upon  him. 
It  was  felt  that  Paul,  more  than  any  other 
man,  was  the  champion  and  representative 
before  the  world  of  the  Christian  faith,  "  set 
for  defence  of  the  gospel."  Everywhere  the 
keenest  sympathy  was  evoked  by  the  story 
of  his  sufferings.  Only  the  most  fanatical 
Judaists  were  disposed  any  longer  to  question 
his  apostolic  claims.  "  The  signs  of  the  apos- 
tle," as  he  had  pathetically  written  to  the  Co- 
rinthians (2  Ep.  xi.  23,  xii.  11, 12),  were  "fully 
wrought "  in  him,  "  in  all  endurance  "  as  well 
as  "  in  signs  and  wonders  and  powers."  Who 
could  deny  that  he  was  "  in  labors  more  abun- 
dantly, in  prisons  more  abundantly,  in  stripes 
above  measure,  in  deaths  oft "  ?    Paul's  per- 


168  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

sonal  position,  his  place  in  the  love  and  rev- 
erence of  the  Church,  was  now  secure.  He 
needs  no  longer  to  waste  a  word  upon  his  own 
defence.  We  mark  in  the  letters  of  this  period 
a  calm  sense  of  authority,  a  consciousness, 
blended  with  the  deepest  humility,  of  the 
unique  grandeur  of  his  office  and  his  unques- 
tioned place  amongst  the  very  chiefest,  such 
as  we  scarcely  find  in  earlier  epistles,  or  only 
in  its  first  traces  in  the  letter  to  the  Eomans 
(ch.  i.  5,  xi.  13,  XV.  15-17).  It  was  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  Nero's  prisoner  at  Rome,  Christ's 
bondsman  for  the  Gentiles,  that  St.  Paul  rose 
to  the  full  unassailable  height  of  his  sublime 
mission.  He  now  visibly  becomes  what  he 
has  ever  since  remained  in  the  eyes  of  the 
universal  Church, — as  the  apostle. 

Along  with  this  advancement  in  outward 
influence,  St.  Paul's  spiritual  life  had  grown 
more  calm  and  deep.  The  epistle  to  the  Phi- 
lippians  takes  us  into  the  sanctuary  of  his  in- 
ward experience.  The  trials  of  recent  years 
have  brought  their  blessing  to  himself.  His 
life  had  many  times  hung  in  the  balance.  His 
condition  as  a  prisoner  was  irksome  in  the 
extreme,  to  a  man  of  his  temperament ;  and 
in  earlier  days  his  high  spirit  and  active  dis- 
position would  have  chafed  against  it  exceed- 
ingly.    He  has  been  thrown  in  upon  himself, 


TKANSITION  TO   THE  THIRD   GROUP.        169 

with  leisure  for  meditation,  such  as  he  had 
never  enjoyed  since  the  three  years  spent  in 
Arabia.  During  all  this  time  of  suspense,  of 
solitude,  and  hardship  to  flesh  and  blood, 
Christ  has  been  his  companion,  Christ  his 
continual  study.  The  apostle's  one  aim  has 
been  "to  know  Him,  and  the  power  of  His 
resurrection,  and  the  fellowship  of  His  suffer- 
ings, being  conformed  to  His  death  "  (Phil.  iii. 
10).  The  cross  of  Christ,  which  had  given 
him  his  message  of  salvation  to  the  world, 
supplied  also  his  model  and  personal  ideal 
(Phil.  iii.  10).  He  was  filling  up  the  part 
assigned  him  in  the  fellowship  of  Christ's 
afflictions  (Col.  i.  24).  Such  thoughts  had 
brought  him  not  comfort  alone,  but  a  strange 
and  overflowing  delight.  He  was  "  strength- 
ened with  all  power  according  to  the  might  of 
God's  glory,  unto  all  patience  and  longsuffer- 
ing  with  joyfulness."  From  the  emperor 
downwards,  there  was  no  man  in  Eome  so 
happy  as  the  prisoner  Paul.  Of  "  fears  with- 
in "  we  hear  no  more,  and  "  fightings  without " 
do  not  vex  him  as  they  did  (2  Cor.  vii.  5). 
Death  and  life  are  equal  to  him;  in  every 
state  he  is  content  (Phil.  i.  20-24 ;  iv.  11-13). 
Living  in  the  undimmed  light  of  Christ's 
fellowship,  and  in  the  love  and  confidence  of 
Christ's  people  throughout  the  world,  nothing 


170  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

can  make  liim  sorrowful ;  and  lie  writes  to  the 
Philippians,  "I  joy  and  rejoice  with  you  all" 
(ch.  ii.  17).  In  Paul's  soul  it  was  summer  time. 
His  prison  lodging  stood  next  door  to  Paradise. 
Meyer,  and  some  other  interpreters,  have 
maintained  that  the  three  Asiatic  letters 
(Ephesians,  Colossians,  Philemon)  were  writ- 
ten/rom  Ccesarea  (59-61  a.d.),  not  from  Eome. 
The  positive  grounds  alleged  for  this  are  very 
slight.  On  the  other  hand,  Ephesians  and 
Colossians  resemble  Philippians  and  differ 
from  the  letters  of  the  former  group  in  so 
marked  a  way,  that  the  later  date  and  place 
of  composition  are  more  probable.  It  was  at 
Rome,  moreover,  and  not  in  the  prison  of 
Caesarea,  that  the  apostle  had  the  liberty  of 
preaching  implied  in  Eph.  vi.  19,  20  and  Col. 
iv.  3,  4.  To  Rome  the  runaway  slave  Onesi- 
mus  is  likely  to  have  come.  And  surveying 
the  Gentile  world  from  Rome,  he  could  fitly 
speak  of  the  gospel  as  "bearing  fruit  and 
growing  in  all  the  tvorld^^  (Col.  i.  6). 

The  Colossl\-N  Heeesy. 

One  day  there  reached  St.  Paul's  lodging 
at  Rome  a  visitor  from  Asia,  of  the  name  of 
Epaphras.  He  was  minister  and  founder  of 
the  church  at  Colossse,  a  Graeco-Phrygian  town 
in  the  province  of  Asia,  situated,  with  its 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  THIED  GROUP.   171 

neighbor  cities  of  Laodicea  and  Hierapolis, 
more  than  a  hundred  miles  inland  from 
Ephesus.  So  far  the  influence  of  St.  Paul's 
ministry  at  the  latter  city  had  extended,  al- 
though he  had  never  himself  visited  this  se- 
cluded region.  Epaphras  came  to  the  apostle 
in  great  trouble.  A  teacher  had  appeared  in 
his  church  (we  say  a  teacher,  for  the  denunci- 
ations of  chap.  ii.  8,  16,  18  point  to  a  single 
person)  answering  too  truly  to  the  apostle's 
description  in  Acts  xx.  29,  30 — "speaking 
perverse  things  to  draw  away  the  disciples 
after "  him.  This  new  teacher  was  a  man  of 
plausible  style  and  large  pretensions ;  at  the 
same  time  there  was  an  air  of  humility  about 
him,  and  an  ascetic  rigor,  well  calculated  to 
influence  in  his  favor  undiscerning  minds. 
In  learning  and  argument,  Epaphras  probably 
found  himself  overmatched;  and  he  was  in 
fear  lest  his  flock  should  be  shaken  and  divided 
in  their  faith,  if  not  wholly  led  astray.  Hence 
he  comes  with  his  report  to  St.  Paul,  who  had 
sent  him  upon  this  charge  to  Colossae  in  the 
first  instance  (ch.  i.  7,  "  a  faithful  minister  of 
Christ  on  our  hehaJf^^),  seeking  advice  and 
help.  The  apostle  writes  accordingly;  and 
intends  upon  his  release  to  make  it  one  of  his 
first  objects  to  visit  Colossae,  and  confront  in 
person  this  new  movement  (Philem.  22). 


172  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

Such  was  the  occasion  of  the  epistle  to  the 
Colossians.  To  understand  its  purport,  we 
must  endeavor  to  realize  the  nature  of  the 
teaching  against  which  it  was  directed.  This 
doctrine  differed  essentially  from  that  of  the 
Judaizers  of  Galatia  and  Corinth.  While 
Jewish  in  outward  guise  (ii.  11,  14,  16),  its  in- 
spiration was  drawn  from  another  source. 
The  Colossian  heresy  bore  the  name  of  "  phi- 
losophy "  (ii.  8) ;  it  had  "  a  show  of  wisdom  " 
(ver.  23),  and  appealed  to  men  of  intellectual 
tastes.  Along  with  its  Jewish  dress  and  phil- 
osophical affinities,  two  main  principles  are 
conspicuous  in  its  tenets, — reverence  for  the 
angelic  poivers  (see  ch.  ii.  10,  15,  18),  and  con- 
temptfor  the  body  (vv.  20-23). 

Under  these  characteristics  we  can  detect 
the  first  beginnings  of  the  great  Gnostical 
movement  which  culminated  in  the  early  part 
of  the  second  century.  We  need  not  be  sur- 
prised to  find  symptoms  of  this  tendency  in 
the  infancy  of  the  Church.  Gnosticism  was 
already  in  the  air ;  as  Dr.  Jowett  says,  it  con- 
stituted *^  the  mental  atmosphere  of  the  Greek 
cities  of  Asia,  a  conducting  medium  between 
heathenism  and  Christianity," — a  common 
solvent,  perhaps  one  might  say,  of  heathen- 
ism, Judaism,  and  Christianity.  Judaism  had 
been  subject  to  its  influence  in  the  Greek  cities 


TEANSITION   TO   THE  THIRD   GEOUP.        173 

of  the  East  for  two  hundred  years.  The 
Alexandrian  "philosophy,"  embodied  in  the 
extensive  works  of  Philo,  Paul's  contemporary, 
is  nothing  but  a  Jewish  G-nosticism, — an  amal- 
gam of  G-reek  ideahsm  and  Oriental  theoso- 
phy  with  the  Mosaic  system.  Philo's  whole 
endeavor  is  to  put  the  new  wine  of  Plato  into 
the  old  bottles  of  Moses,  and  to  persuade  him- 
self that  this  foreign  infusion  had  been  there 
from  the  first.  If  the  Pharisees  were  the  High 
Church  of  Judaism,  then  these  philosophical 
Hellenists  constituted  its  Broad  Church.  ,Now, 
it  is  from  this  quarter,  the  very  opposite  to 
that  which  gave  rise  to  the  legalistic  move- 
ment, that  the  errors  proceeded  which  the 
apostle  has  now  to  combat. 

This  system  of  thought  had  for  its  root-idea, 
in  common  with  Eastern  philosophy  and  the- 
osophy  in  general,  a  belief  in  the  absolute  sep- 
aration of  God  from  the  tvorld,  and  the  intrinsic 
evil  of  matter.  Hence  it  interposed,  on  the  one 
hand,  a  hierarchy  of  "angels,"  or  "powers," 
or  "  words  "*  (as  they  are  designated  by  Philo), 
in  order  to  mediate  by  manifold  grades  be- 
tween God  and  the  finite  creation;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  course  of  ritual  and  ascetic 
purifications,  by  which  man  should  rise  above 
his  bodily  condition  into  communion  with  the 

*  Or  Malmtmas,  in  the  language  of  our  own  theosophists. 


174  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

spiritual  world.  The  Jewish  sect  of  the  Es- 
senes,  who  lived  a  hermit  life  in  Palestine,  and 
are  supposed  by  many  to  have  given  an  im- 
pulse to  the  teaching  of  John  the  Baptist  and 
even  of  Jesus,  held  similar  views.  To  these 
principles  the  doctrines  and  vocabulary  of 
Judaism  were  accommodated,  by  the  free  use 
of  allegory.  The  Colossian  heresy  was  a  first 
essay  in  the  attempt  to  bring  the  gospel  of 
Christ  under  the  scope  of  this  Grnostic  philos- 
ophy of  religion.  A  similar  leaven  was  al- 
ready at  work  in  the  Corinthian  doubters  of 
the  resurrection,  and  in  a  milder  form,  per- 
haps, in  the  vegetarianism  of  the  "weak 
brethren"  of  Eome.  We  trace  its  further 
development  in  the  various  errors  and  corrup- 
tions denounced  by  the  Pastoral  epistles,  by 
the  Apocalyptic  letter  to  the  seven  churches 
of  Asia,  by  the  first  epistle  general  of  John, 
and  indirectly  by  the  fourth  G-ospel,  which  has 
in  view  men  who  denied  both  the  incarnation 
and  the  full  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Naturally  enough,  this  heresy  sought  in 
the  first  instance  to  graft  itself  upon  the  broad 
and  innovating  Pauline  doctrine.  The  lead- 
ers of  the  movement  may  easily  have  claimed 
to  be  disciples  of  Paul,  and  continuers  of  his 
work  in  the  sphere  of  higher  religious  thought. 
In  conflict  with  such  opponents,  the  apostle's 


TKANSITION   TO   THE   THIKD   GKOUP.        175 

attitude  becomes  as  much  conservative  as 
against  the  legalists  it  had  been  liberal  and 
progressive ;  for  he  was  dealing  with  men  like 
those  of  whom  St.  John  writes, — ''who  go 
forward  and  continue  not  in  the  doctrine  of 
Christ"  (2  John  9),  claiming  for  this  reason 
to  be  the  "advanced  thinkers"  of  the  day. 
These  men  of  progress  and  enlightenment 
showed  themselves,  after  all,  but  narrow  and 
illiberal  sectarians.  For  the  old  Jewish  ex- 
clusiveness  of  race,  they  substituted  a  Grnostic 
exclusiveness  of  intellectual  caste.  They 
sought  to  form  a  church  within  the  Church, 
reserving  the  higher  privileges  of  religion  for 
those  who  were  initiated  into  their  esoteric 
"  mysteries."  Of  this  tendency  we  have  clear 
indications  in  the  language  of  Col.  i.  27~ii.  3, 
and  possibly  in  Eph.  i.  8,  17,  etc.  There  was 
in  this  first  heresy  a  strange  blending  of  ele- 
ments of  error  afterwards  divergent, — a  com- 
bination of  rationalism  with  asceticism,  of 
ceremonialism  with  mysticism.  The  person- 
ality of  the  heretical  leader  does  not  come 
clearly  into  view.  His  behavior  was  a  mix- 
ture of  self-aggrandizement  and  humility  (ch. 
ii.  8,  16,  18,  22),  of  affected  spirituality  joined 
with  pettiness  and  earthliness  of  mind  (ii.  18, 
21,  23). 

This  new  doctrine,  under  the  pretence  of 


176  THE  EPISTLES    OF  PAUL. 

developing  Christian  faith,  tended  to  over- 
throw it  from  its  foundations.  For  (1)  it  im- 
peached the  sufficiency  of  Christy  as  revealer  of 
God  and  redeemer  of  men ;  (2)  it  endangered 
the  unity  of  the  Church  centring  in  Him,  and 
dissolved  the  bonds  of  Christian  fellowship; 
(3)  it  destroyed  the  Divine  character  of  creation 
and  the  natural  order  of  human  life.  To  these 
imperilled  principles  the  Asiatic  letters  are 
devoted. 


CHAPTER  X. 

the  epistles  of  the  fiest  impkisonment. 

Connection  of  Colossians  and  Ephesians. 

These  two  letters  are  intimately  allied  in 
their  contents  and  snbject-matter.  The  rela- 
tionship of  the  three  Pastorals,  or  of  Gralatians 
and  Romans,  only  approaches  the  closeness 
of  the  tie  that  binds  in  one  Colossians  and 
Ephesians.  This  parallelism  is  conspicuously 
manifest  in  the  sections  relating  to  family 
duties  (Eph.  v.  22-vi.  9;  Col.  iii.  18-iv.  1) ; 
but  it  exists  equally  in  many  other  passages, 
and  those  dealing  with  the  chief  subjects  of 
the  epistles:  comp.,  e.g.^  Eph.  i.  21-23  with 
Col.  i.  16-19,  ii.  10,  15;  Eph.  iv.  14-16  with 
Col.  ii.  19;  Eph.  iv.  22-25  with  Col.  iii.  8-10; 
Eph.  V.  19,  20  with  Col.  iii.  16,  17.  Both 
epistles  are  occupied  with  the  thoughts  of  the 
lordship  of  Christ  and  the  unity  of  His  body  the 
Churchy  growing  out  of  its  relationship  to 
Him;  but  in  Colossians  the  emphasis  falls 
upon  the  former,  in  Ephesians  upon  the  latter 
of  these  truths.    In  both  the  new  moral  life  of 

177 


178  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Christian  believers  is  set  forth  at  large — more 
adequately  than  in  any  previous  epistle — and 
upon  the  same  general  lines ;  but  the  injunc- 
tions of  Colossians  start  from  the  idea  of  the 
believer's  union  with  Christ  in  His  exalted 
heavenly  life,  those  of  Ephesians  from  that  of 
the  unity  of  the  Spirit  existing  in  the  Church 
on  earth.  In  both  the  same  strong  desire  is 
exhibited,  appearing  also  in  the  prayer  of 
Phil.  i.  9,  10,  for  a  deeper  Christian  knoivledge 
in  the  Church,  such  as  would  protect  it  from 
the  seductions  of  intellectual  error  and  rob 
them  of  their  force  (see.  Eph.  i.  17,  18,  iv.  13, 
14 ;  Col.  i.  9,  ii.  2,  3,  iii.  10). 

These  epistles  are  pinned  together  by  the 
identical  references  of  Eph.  vi.  21,  22  and  Col. 
iv.  7,  8.  They  were  sent  by  the  same  messen- 
ger, Ti/cJiicuSj  charged  in  each  case  with  the 
same  commission.  Tychicus  had  accompanied 
St.  Paul  to  Jerusalem,  as  a  representative  of 
the  Asian  churches  (Acts  xx.  4).  He  is  found 
in  the  apostle's  service  again,  when  some  three 
years  later  he  wrote  the  epistle  to  Titus  (ch. 
iii.  12).  Bearing  these  priceless  documents, 
with  many  added  verbal  messages  and  greet- 
ings, Tychicus  landed  at  Ephesus  and  thence 
travelled  inland  to  Colossse,  visiting,  doubtless, 
other  churches  on  the  way. 

To  the  nearest  of  the  intervening  churches 


EPISTLES   OF   THE   FIEST   IMPRISONMENT.     179 

^that  of  Laodicea — the  Colossians  are  directed 
to  communicate  their  own  epistle,  receiving 
at  the  same  time  for  their  perusal  a  letter  of 
the  apostle's  to  be  forwarded  from  Laodicea 
("  see  that  you  also  read  the  epistle  from  La- 
odicea," Col.  iv.  16).  Archbishop  Ussher  sug- 
gested, two  hundred  years  ago,  that  this  "  let- 
ter from  Laodicea "  was  none  other  than  our 
epistle  to  the  JEpliesians ;  and  his  hypothesis 
during  recent  years  has  found  many  support- 
ers, including  scholars  so  eminent  as  Bishop 
Lightfoot,  Drs.  Godet  and  Beet,  and  Professor 
Sabatier.  The  two  letters  excellently  serve  to 
illustrate  and  complete  each  other. 

Moreover,  the  characteristics  of  the  longer 
epistle  make  it  extremely  difficult  to  suppose 
that  it  was  designed  for  the  church  of  Ephesus 
alone.  Observe  (1)  the  very  general  terms  in 
which  the  letter  is  couched.  Not  only  are 
personal  tidings  and  greetings  wanting — which 
Tychicus  might  have  supplied  by  word  of 
mouth — but  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  those 
references  to  the  condition  of  the  particular 
church  addressed,  to  the  circumstances  of  its 
origin  and  the  apostle's  earlier  associations 
with  it,  which  St.  Paul  delights  to  make  in 
writing  to  old  acquaintances.  This  is  most 
surprising,  when  we  remember  that  he  had 
lived  at  Ephesus  longer  than  in  any  other 


180  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

city  of  his  mission  (contrast  the  allusions  of 
Acts  XX.  18-25) ;  and  it  cannot  be  explained 
by  any  supposed  change  of  manner,  for  we 
find  him  writing  in  an  almost  familiar  style 
to  the  Colossians,  whom  he  knew  only  through 
Epaphras  and  Philemon.  (2)  The  language  of 
Eph.  i.  15,  16  (comp.  Col.  i.  4,  and  contrast 
Phil.  i.  3-7),  also  of  chap.  iii.  2,  iv.  21,  taken 
in  its  natural  sense,  signifies  that  the  writer 
has  in  view  some  readers  of  whose  faith  he 
only  knew  hy  report ;  he  is  not  in  all  cases  sure 
of  the  extent  and  quality  of  their  Christian 
knowledge.  Can  we  conceive  Paul  writing 
thus  of  his  Ephesian  children  in  the  faith? 
(3)  There  is  an  official  distance  and  formality  in 
the  writer's  attitude,  such  as  we  find  in  no 
other  epistle,  and  very  different  from  Paul's 
manner  towards  his  friends  and  disciples.  Not 
once  does  he  address  his  readers  as  "  brethren  " 
or  "  beloved  " :  "  my  brethren  "  in  Eph.  vi.  10 
is  an  insertion  of  the  copyists.  There  is  not 
a  single  word  of  familiarity  or  endearment  in 
the  whole  letter.  The  benediction  at  the  end 
(ch.  vi.  23,  24)  is  given  in  the  third  person,  not 
in  the  second  as  everywhere  else :  "  Peace  to 
the  brethren  !  .  .  .  grace  be  with  all  that  love 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ " ;  not  "  Grace  be  tvith 
you.^^  Nowhere  do  we  see  less  of  this  or  that 
church,  and  more  of  the  Church ;  nowhere  less 


EPISTLES    OF   THE  FIKST   IMPRISONMENT.    181 

of  tlie  man,  and  more  of  the  apostle  in  St. 
Paul. 

Two  facts  of  external  evidence  confirm  this 
presumption.  (4)  The  ahsence  of  the  ivords 
"  in  Ephesus  "  in  the  address  of  the  epistle,  as 
it  appears  in  the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic  MSS., 
our  oldest  and  best  witnesses  to  the  Greek 
text.  Origen,  who  wi'ote  early  in  the  third 
century,  Basil  in  the  fourth,  and  Jerome  in 
the  fifth,  testify  that  this  reading  of  Eph.  i.  1 
prevailed  in  the  earhest  times.*  (5)  Finally, 
it  appears  from  Tertullian  that  Marcion,  a 
heretical  doctor  of  the  second  century,  actually 
entitled  this  epistle  ''To  the  Laodiceans^'!  Nor 
does  Tertullian  appeal  to  the  words  of  chap.  i. 
1,  as  he  would  certainly  have  done  if  "  in 
Ephesus  "  stood  there  in  the  accepted  text  of 
his  time;  he  quotes  the  title  of  the  epistle, 
and  common  tradition,  against  the  heretic.  It 
does  not  appear  that  this  designation  in  any 
way  furthered  Marcion's  pecuhar  views.  At 
the  same  time,  there  is  no  evidence  beyond 
that  of  Marcion  for  any  title  but  the  usual  one. 
Other  writers  of  the  second  century,  including 

*  Supposing  this  reading  to  be  genuine,  we  should  probably 
translate  :  "  To  the  saints,  those  that  are  indeed  faithful  in 
Christ  Jesus."  Compare  the  last  words  of  the  letter :  "  Grace 
be  with  all  those  who  love  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in  uneor- 
ruptness  " ;  also  Col.  i.  2. 


182  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Origen 
himself  (who  seems  to  have  known  nothing  of 
the  reading  "  that  are  in  Ephesns  ")  quote  the 
epistle  as  "to  the  Ephesians."  The  whole 
tradition  of  the  early  Church  associated  it 
with  Ephesus. 

The  circular  liypotJiesis  of  Ussher  appears 
to  us  to  reconcile  these  discordant  facts,  and 
to  account  for  the  peculiarities  which  we  have 
pointed  out  in  the  epistle,  and  which  have 
been  strongly  urged  against  its  authenticity. 
On  this  view,  it  was  designed  for  Ephesus 
indeed,  but  at  the  same  time  for  a  circle  of 
Asiatic  cJmrclies  (comp.  John's  "  seven  churches 
that  are  in  Asia"),  including  some,  such  as 
that  of  Laodicea,  which  St.  Paul  had  not  been 
able  to  visit,  whose  members  had  "not  seen 
his  face  in  the  flesh"  (Col.  ii.  1)  and  about 
whose  state  he  was  imperfectly  informed. 
Tychicus  may  have  been  charged  to  read  the 
letter  in  the  churches  through  which  he  passed, 
finally  depositing  the  autograph  in  Ephesus ; 
or  a  number  of  copies  may  have  been  prepared 
at  first  for  circulation  from  Ephesus,  which 
was  the  most  convenient  centre  for  western 
Asia  Minor.  Ephesus  being  the  metropolis  of 
the  province,  and  claiming  a  peculiar  right  in 
St.  Paul,  would  naturally  regard  the  document 
as  specially  its  own;  and  it  would  become 


EPISTLES   OF   THE  FIEST   IMPEISONMENT.     183 

known  to  churches  in  other  quarters  through 
Ephesus.  Marcion,  who  was  a  native  of  Asia 
Minor,  has,  it  may  be,  preserved  a  genuine 
fragment  of  local  tradition  testifying  to  the 
wider  destination  of  the  letter.  "We  venture, 
on  the  above  grounds,  to  read  this  epistle  as 
tJie  general  epistle  of  Paul  the  apostle  to  the 
churches  of  Asia. 

While  in  its  contents  and  vocabulary  Ephe- 
sians  resembles  Colossians  very  closely,  in  their 
style  one  feels  a  considerable  difference.  Co- 
lossians is  terse,  vigorous,  pointed,  and  some- 
times highly  elliptical  and  abrupt.  Ephe- 
sians  is  the  most  diffuse  and  flowing  of  the 
apostle's  writings.  Nowhere  does  St.  Paul 
heap  together  so  many  synonyms;  nowhere 
else  does  he  express  his  thoughts  with  such 
fulness  of  phrase,  or  return  so  often  to  the  same 
idea,  as  in  Ephesians.  In  Colossians,  however, 
we  have  some  notable  passages  marked  by 
this  amplitude  of  style,  which  is  a  new  feat- 
ure in  the  apostle's  manner  as  a  writer,  due 
perhaps  to  the  leisure  of  prison  and  the  habit 
of  meditation  which  it  fostered  (see  ch.  i.  9-11, 
16-20,  27-29) ;  but  in  Ephesians  this  pecul- 
iarity is  carried  to  its  furthest  extent,  and 
marks  the  entire  course  of  the  epistle. 

This  difference  represents  not,  as  some 
critics  argue,  a  difference  of  authorship,  but 


184  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

a  difference  of  mood  in  the  same  author.  The 
letters  are  the  outcome  of  two  contrasted  states 
of  mind,  such  as  alternate  rapidly  in  a  mobile 
nature  like  St.  Paul's.  Galatians  and  Eomans 
exhibit  the  same  contrast,  only  in  a  less  de- 
gree. Colossians  is  a  letter  of  discussion,  Ephe- 
sians  of  reflection.  In  the  former  we  behold 
Paul  in  spiritual  conflict,  in  the  latter  his  soul 
is  at  rest.  "Writing  to  the  flock  of  Epaphras 
at  Colossse,  he  is  struggling  with  a  new  prob- 
lem, profound  and  far-reaching  in  its  issues,  in 
regard  to  which  he  is  at  a  greater  disadvan- 
tage inasmuch  as  it  has  come  upon  a  distant 
church  and  one  comparatively  unknown  to 
him  (ch.  i.  28-ii.  3).  The  Ephesian  letter,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  the  most  tranquil  and  med- 
itative, the  most  calmly  expansive  and  John- 
like, that  St.  Paul  has  ever  composed;  only 
here  and  there  (ch.  iv.  14,  vi.  10-20;  comp. 
also  footnote  on  p.  181)  does  it  remind  us  of 
the  conflict  through  which  he  has  passed  and 
which  he  sees  awaiting  the  Church  in  the 
near  future.  "  The  first  is  like  the  mountain 
stream  cleaving  its  way  with  swift  passage, 
by  deep  ravines  and  sudden,  broken  turnings, 
through  some  barrier  thrown  across  its  path ; 
the  second  is  the  far-spreading  lake,  in  which 
its  chafed  waters  find  rest,  mirroring  in  their 
clear  depths  the  eternal  heavens  above." 


epistles  of  the  fikst  impkisonment.   185 

Analysis  of  the  Two  Epistles. 

The  relation  of  these  two  profound  epistles 
to  each  other  will  be  better  understood  if  we 
place  them  in  our  final  analysis  side  by  side. 
In  the  order  of  thought,  and  in  virtue  of  its 
more  definite  aim,  Colossians  leads  the  way. 
Both  letters  consist  of  doctrine  and  exliortation 
in  nearly  equal  proportions,  the  doctrine  in 
Colossians  taking  a  polemical,  in  Ephesians  a 
devotional  turn,  while  the  exhortation  in  both 
epistles  is  richly  ethical.  In  both,  at  about 
the  same  point,  St.  Paul  weaves  into  his  doc- 
trinal exposition  a  statement  concerning  libn- 
self,  relating  to  his  Gentile  apostleship  and  the 
imprisonment  it  has  brought  upon  him :  Col. 
i.  23-ii.  5 ;  Eph.  iii.  1-13.  The  last  section  of 
Colossians  (iv.  7-17)  consists  oi  personal  infor- 
mation and  greetings  of  the  most  interesting 
nature,  such  as,  beyond  the  reference  to  Tych- 
icus,  are  wholly  wanting  in  the  companion 
letter. 

Intkoduction  to  Colossians,  chap.  i.  1-14. 

This  consists  of  Salutation  (vv.  1,  2),  Thanksgiving 
(vv.  3-8),  and  Prayer  (vv.  9-14).  [In  the  epistles  of  this 
group  a  prayer  regularly  follows  the  opening  thanksgiving 
— a  custom  only  anticipated  in  1  and  2  Thessalonians.  ] 

The  Christian  hope  is  the  centre  of  the  thanksgiving, 
with  the  ministry  of  Epaphras  for  its  secondary  topic. 
The  need  of  deepei^  knowledge  is  the  keynote  of  the  prayer, 


186  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

to  be  attended  with  thankfulness  for  the  blessings  of  re- 
demption. 

A.  The  Doctkine  of  Colossl^ns,  chap.  i.  15- 
ii.  23. 

This  we  may  again  divide  into  an  expository 
(ch.  i.  15-ii.  7)  smd  polemical  part  (ch.  ii.  8-23). 

§  1.  Concerning  tJie  Bedeeming  Son  and  His 
kingdom,  chap.  i.  15-20. 

He  is  the  image  of  God,  and  the  Lord  and  Head  of  all 
creation,  ver.  15. — This  great  affirmation  is  applied  : 

(1)  To  the  natural  universe,  where  the  basis  of  His  king- 

dom lies  deep  and  wide  as  the  foundation  of  the 
world.  ''  All  things— angels  included— are  created 
through  and  for  Him,  and  in  Him  they  hold  to- 
gether." In  other  words,  Christ  is  the  end,  the 
mediating  cause,  and  the  uniting  bond  of  the  exist- 
ing universe,  vv.  16,  17. 

(2)  To   the  ChurcJi,  the  new  creation  (including  "the 

things  in  the  heavens"),  over  which  in  virtue  of 
His  cross  and  resurrection  Christ  holds  a  corre- 
sponding headship,  vv.  18-20.  The  work  of  Christ 
the  Redeemer  is  thus  based  upon,  and  made  par- 
allel to,  that  of  Christ  the  Creator. 

<^  2.  Concerning  the  salvation  of  the  readers, 
vv.  21-23. 

This  is  briefly  touched  upon,  with  reference  to  their 
former  sinful  state  (ver.  21)  ;  to  the  means  and  the  pur- 
pose of  their  reconciliation  to  God  (or  to  Christ:  comp. 
ver.  22  with  ver.  13  and  2  Cor.  v.  10) ;  and  to  the  subject- 
ive conditions  on  which  it  depends  (ver.  23). 


EPISTLES   OF   THE  FIEST   IMPRISONMENT.     187 

§  3.  Concerning  tlie  apostle  and  his  mission^ 
chap.  i.  23-ii.  7 : 

(1)  In  its  general  aspect :  his  sufferings  for  the  cause  of 

the  Gentiles  (ver.  24),  his  great  commission  to  re- 
veal the  mystery  of  their  heritage  in  Christ  (vv.  25- 
27),  his  faithful  and  laborious  discharge  of  this 
office  (vv.  28,  29). 

(2)  In  its  particular  relation  to  the  readers :  his  anxiety 

for  those  to  whom  he  had  been  unable  personally 
to  minister,  at  this  time  of  trial  to  their  faith 
(vv.  1-4)  ;  his  joy  in  their  steadfastness  (ver.  5), 
and  appeal  for  its  continuance  (vv.  6,  7). 

Having  laid  the  foundation  for  his  argument  in  the  sov- 
ereignty of  Christ,  and  put  himself  upon  a  proper  footing 
with  his  readers,  he  now  delivers  his  assault  against  the 
enemy  at  Colossse. 

§  4.  Concerning  the  new  teacher  and  his  phi- 
losophy,  chap.  ii.  8-23 : 

(1)  Which  robs  Christ  of  His  glory,  and  heliecers  of  their 

completeness  in  Him,  vv.  9-15. 

(2)  Which  carries  them  back  to  superseded  Jennsh  ob- 

servances, supplemented  by  an  angel-worship  de- 
rogatory to  Christ's  headship  of  the  Church, 
vv.  16-19. 

(3)  Which  imposes  arbitrary  ascetic  rules,  that  hurt  the 

body  while  they  fail  to  mortify  the  flesh,  vv.  20-23. 

B.  The  Ethics  of  Colossians,  chap.  iii.  1- 
iv.  6. 

Observe  how  the  doctrine  of  the  exalted 
Christ  runs  through  these  exhortations,  glo- 


188  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

rifying  and  exalting  all  the  moral  relation- 
ships of  life.     The  new  life  is  set  forth : 

(1)  In  its  hidden  union  with  Christ  in  heaven^  soon  to 
be  revealed  on  His  appearing,  chap.  iii.  1-4. 

(3)  From  this  union  is  inferred  :  (a)  the  believer's  sepa- 
ration from  old  sins  (vv.  5-9) ;  (6)  his  investment 
with  the  new^  Christ-like  character,  distinguished 
by  spiritual  intelligence  and  the  widest  human 
charity  (vv.  10,  11). 

So  much  for  the  individual  life  of  the  Chris- 
tian.    His  social  life  in  the  Church  is  one — 

(3)  Of  brotherly  affection  and  fo7'giveness,  vv.  12-14  ; 

(4)  Of  all-controlling  peace,  ver.  15  ; 

(5)  Of  mutual  edification  hy  word  and  song,  ver.  16  ; 

(6)  Of  consecration  to  Christ  and  thankfulness  to  God 

in  everything,  ver.  17. 

Peculiar  to  Colossians  and  Ephesians  are 
the  exhortations — 

(7)  To  a  right  Christian  discharge  of  family  duties — 

those  of  husband  and  wife,  parent  and  child,  mas- 
ter and  slave  (ch.  iii.  18-iv.  1).  The  last  of  the 
three  Paul  dwells  upon  here,  with  a  view  to  the 
case  of  Onesimus  and  Philemon. 

Finally,  exhortations  follow  of  a  general 
character : 

(8)  To  constancy  in  prayer  and  thanksgiving, — prayer 

being  asked  especially  for  the  apostle  in  his  bonds, 
chap.  iv.  2-4  ; 

(9)  To  watchful  behavior  and  wise  speech  amongst  men 

of  the  world,  vv.  5,  6. 


EPISTLES    OF   THE   FIEST   IMPEISONMENT.     189 

Of  the  concluding  personal  section  we  have 
spoken  already,  chap.  iv.  7-18. 

Introduction  to  Ephesians,  chap.  i.  1-19. 

After  the  Salutation  (vv.  1,  2),  the  apostle  enters  upon 
an  Act  of  Praise,  the  most  extended  and  sublime  in  his 
epistles  (vv.  3-14).  This  is  followed  by  a  Prayer,  less  sus- 
tained indeed,  but  of  great  fulness  and  weight,  from  which 
he  proceeds  to  the  doctrine  of  the  letter  without  any  per- 
ceptible break.  The  three  first  chapters  are  steeped  in 
devotion  :  the  apostle  teaches,  as  it  were,  upon  his  knees. 

The  Act  of  Praise  is  divided  by  its  threefold  refrain— 
"to  the  praise  of  the  glory  of  His  grace,  the  praise  of  His 
glopy"_into  three  sections,  or  stanzas  (vv.  6,  12,  14),  set- 
ting forth  in  succession  the  eternal  purpose  of  Divine 
grace^  its  present  communication  to  the  believer,  and  the 
future  glory  for  which  it  seals  both  Jew  and  Gentile. 

The  Prayer  asks  on  the  readers'  behalf  for  enlightenment 
to  know  three  things — the  hope  to  which  God  calls  them, 
the  wealth  that  He  possesses  in  them,  and  the  surpassing 
greatness  of  His  power  towards  them,  measured  by  the 
resurrection  of  Christ  (vv.  18-21). 

A.  Doctrine  of  Ephesians,  chap.  i.  20-iii.  13. 

The  teaching  of  this  letter,  as  we  have  seen, 
rises  out  of  its  opening  prayer.  St.  Paul  in- 
structs his  readers : 

§  1.  Concerning  what  God  wrought  in  the 

Christ,  chap.  i.  20-23. 

Raising  Him  from  the  dead,  lifting  Him  above  all  angelic 
powers  to  the  headship  of  the  universe,  and  giving  Him, 
thus  enthroned,  to  the  Church  for  its  Head  ;  while  it  in 
turn  is  the  body  He  inhabits  and  the  receptacle  of  His 


190  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

plenitude.      This  last  thought  is  the  key  to  the  entire 
epistle. 

§  2.  Concerning  what  God  has  ivrought  in  the 
readers  through  Christ,  chap.  ii.    And  this : 

(1)  In  their  individual  salvation  (vv.  1-10),  raising  them 

from  the  death  of  sin  and  the  bondage  of  Satan  to 
life  in  the  knowledge  of  God's  love  and  the  fellow- 
ship of  the  ascended  Christ. 

(2)  In  their  incorporation  as  Gentiles  with  the  people 

of  God.  Jews  and  Gentiles  are  reconciled  to  each 
other,  as  both  are  reconciled  to  God,  by  the  cross, 
that  they  may  be  ' '  builded  together  for  a  habitation 
of  God  in  the  Spirit "  (vv.  11-22).  This  is  the  most 
distinctive  paragraph  in  the  epistle, — the  fullest 
presentment  we  have  of  Paul's  conception  of  the 
Church. 

§  3.  Concerning  ivhat  God  wrought  in  the 
apostle  towards  this  end,  chap.  iii.  1-13. 

Making  through  him,  the  unworthiest  of  men,  a  revela- 
tion of  unspeakable  glory,  hidden  in  God's  counsels  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world,  which  the  angels  are  watching 
with  profound  interest. 

This  brings  the  apostle  to  his  knees  again ;  and  he  con- 
cludes his  doctrine  with  a  renewed  act  of  prayer  and  praise 
— of  prayer  tor  power  to  comprehend  this  revelation  (vv.  16- 
19),  and  of  praise  to  Him  who  is  able  in  boundless  measure 
to  supply  this  power  (vv.  20,  21).  So  the  doctrine  of  the 
epistle  ends,  as  it  began,  in  worship. 

B.  Ethics  of  Ephesians,  chap.  iv.  1-vi.  20. 
This  homily  is  an  expansion  of  the  corre- 
sponding address  in  Colossians ;  but  is  more 


EPISTLES   OF   THE   FIKST  IMPKISONMENT.     191 

discursive,  and  treats  at  length  of  several 
points  barely  indicated  there.  The  apostle 
enjoins — 

§  1.  Union  in  the  Churchy  based  on  the  seven 
unities  of  its  faith,  chap.  iv.  1-6. 

§  2.  The  use  of  the  various  gifts  of  individuals 
to  promote  the  growth  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
vv.  7-16. 

Verses  7-16  form  the  most  remarkable  homiletical  sec- 
tion, as  chap.  ii.  11-22  the  distinctive  doctrinal  paragraph 
of  the  epistle.  The  apostle  treats  of  the  source  of  the  en- 
doivments  of  the  Christian  ministry,  which  are  the  spoil 
of  the  triumphant  Christ ;  and  their  use  in  organizing 
and  training  the  Church,  so  that  each  member  may  do 
his  part  in  building  up  God's  temple. 

§  3.  Separation  from  old  Gentile  vices,  to  be 
replaced  by  the  corresponding  new  Christian 
virtues^  chap.  iv.  17-v.  14. 

Falsehood,  anger,  theft,  malice,  impurity,  covetousness, 
foolish  talk  are  specified  (ch.  iv.  25-v.  6).  All  is  summed 
up  in  il[iQ  contrast  between  the  "  children  of  light  and  dark- 
ness" (vv.  7-14).  Note  how  every  moral  rule  is  enforced 
by  evangelical  reasons. 

§  4.  Brief  exhortations  follow,  bearing  on 
social  Christian  life,  chap.  v.  15-21. 

To  practical  wisdom,  sobriety,  and  spiritual  animation 
finding  vent  in  song  and  thanksgiving;  and  to  mutual 
subjection. 

%  5.  The  three  relations  oi  family  life  occupy 
chap.  V.  22-vi.  9. 


192  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

The  apostle  dwells  at  length  on  marriage,  setting  forth 
under  this  idea  once  more  the  union  of  Christ  and  the 
Church. 

^  6.  The    closing    address    scarcely  comes 

iTnder  the  title  of  ethics,  chap.  vi.  10-20.    It 

is  the  apostle's  call  to  arms  ! 

A  severe  conflict  awaits  the  Church  [read  "  From  hence- 
forth" in  ver.  10,  following  the  Revised  margin;  the  ad- 
verb is  that  of  Gal.  vi.  17]  ;  and  Christ's  soldiers  must  be 
equipped  and  forearmed  to  meet  it  (comp.  ch.  iv.  14). 

The  paragraph  relating  to  Tychicus  (vv.  21, 
22)  and  a  short  and  quite  unique  Benediction 
(vv.  23,  24)  conclude  the  letter. 

The  Epistle  to  Philemon. 

Along  with  Tychicus  there  journeyed  to 
Colossae  a  certain  Onesinms,  whom  St.  Paul 
commends  as  "the  faithful  and  beloved 
brother,  who  is  of  yourselves"  (Col.  iv.  9). 
The  note  addressed  to  Philemon,  along  with 
the  letter  to  the  Colossian  church,  explains 
about  this  Onesimus.  He  was  a  runaway 
slave  of  Philemon,  whose  steps  had  been 
providentially  directed  to  Paul  in  his  prison. 
The  fugitive  had  been  converted  to  the  faith 
of  Christ.  He  has  proved  himself  a  most  lov- 
able and  serviceable  man ;  the  apostle  is  loth 
to  part  with  him,  calls  him  "  my  child  whom  I 
have  begotten  in  my  bonds — my  very  heart " 


EPISTLES   OF  THE  FIEST  IMPEISONMENT.     193 

(vv.  10-12).  Bat  he  has  no  right  to  keep 
Onesimus;  and  he  sends  him  home  to  his 
master,  "  no  longer  as  a  slave,  but  more  than 
a  slave — a  brother  beloved"  (ver.  16). 

With  Philemon  and  his  family  the  apostle 
was  well  acquainted  (vv.  1,  2).  Philemon 
recognized  Paul  as  his  father  in  Christ  (vv. 
19-21).  We  may  imagine  that,  being  a  man 
of  property,  he  had  occasion  to  visit  Ephesus, 
the  capital  of  his  province,  and  there  had  heard 
the  gospel  from  Paul  six  or  seven  years  ago. 
Philemon's  son  Archippus  is  mentioned  in 
the  epistle  to  the  Colossians,  in  a  way  which 
suggests  that  he  was  at  this  time  ministering 
to  the  church  of  Laodicea  (see  Philem.  2,  and 
Col.  iv.  16, 17).  St.  Paul  speaks  of  him,  doubt- 
less for  this  reason,  as  "my  fellow-soldier" 
(comp.  2  Tim.  ii.  3  and  Phil,  ii  25). 

This  delightful  little  letter  has  a  special 
value  for  several  reasons : 

(1)  For  the  light  which  it  throws  on  the 
apostle's  disposition  in  private  life,  exhibiting 
the  fine  courtesy,  the  exquisite  tact  and  even 
playfulness  of  wit,  which  were  not  the  least 
precious  traits  in  the  character  of  the  noble 
apostle.  This  letter  deserves  to  rank  with 
that  to  the  Philippians  as  a  picture  m  minia- 
ture of  the  perfect  saint — saint  at  once,  and 
gentleman.    It  forms  a  striking  pendant  to 


194  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

the  Ephesian  and  Colossian  epistles,  being  as 
homely  and  human  in  its  charm  as  they  are 
sublime  and  superhuman. 

(2)  It  illustrates  Paul's  teaching  as  to  the 
nullity  of  tvorldly  rank  in  tlie  Clmrcli.  It  says 
by  example,  as  Galatians  and  Colossians  by 
precept :  "  There  is  neither  slave  nor  freeman 
in  Christ  Jesus."  And  it  indicates  the  attitude 
of  Christianity  towards  slavery  and  kindred 
social  problems. 

(3)  In  every  line  and  syllable  this  note  be- 
trays Paul's  personality.  Nothing  more  genu- 
ine was  ever  written.  And  it  is  attached  to 
the  Colossian  letter  so  closely,  that  in  effect  it 
certifies  tlie  genuineness  of  the  latter,  which  has 
been  much  disputed. 

Analysis. 

The  apostle,  after  saluting  Philemon  and 
his  house  (w.  1-3), — 

§  1.  Acknowledges  with  gratitude  to  God  his 
friend's  Christian  character  and  usefulness^  w. 
4-7. 

§  2.  Intercedes  for  the  fugitive  slave,  now  a 
converted  man  and  a  brother  in  Christ,  whom 
it  would  be  a  joy  to  the  apostle  to  see  recon- 
ciled to  his  master.  What  loss  Onesimus  has 
inflicted  on  him  Paul  undertakes  to  make 
good,  vv.  8-21. 


EPISTLES  OF  THE  FIKST  IMPKISONMENT.     195 

§  3.  Announces  his  hope  of  coming  soon  to 
Coloss(E,  and  asks  for  lodging,  ver.  22. 

Greetings  from  his  companions  and  a  Bene- 
diction complete  the  letter,  w.  23-25. 

Epistle  to  the  Philippians. 

« 

The  three  other  letters  of  this  group  were  all 
written  at  one  time,  and  sent  to  the  same  quar- 
ter. Philippians  stands  apart  from  the  rest. 
It  has  points  of  resemblance  to  members  of  the 
other  groups,  as  well  as  to  those  of  its  own.  It 
reminds  us  of  1  Thessalonians  by  its  simplic- 
ity and  warmth  of  affection ;  in  chap.  iii.  1-10 
it  echoes  the  teaching  of  Eomans  and  Gala- 
tians;  while  the  language  of  chap.  i.  23  and 
ii.  16,  17  comes  near  to  that  of  2  Tim.  iv.  6-8, 
in  its  anticipation  of  the  writer's  death.  But 
the  general  complexion  of  the  epistle  is  that 
of  the  third  group ;  and  the  words  of  chap.  i. 
12-14  show  that  it  was  written  from  Paul's 
prison  lodging  at  Rome. 

Whether  Colossians  and  Ephesians  pre- 
ceded or  followed  Philippians  is  a  point  hard 
to  determine,  and  of  little  practical  moment. 
In  favor  of  the  latter  view,  held  by  Lightfoot 
and  Beet,  is  the  resemblance  of  chap.  iii.  1-10 
to  Galatians  and  Eomans,  whence  it  is  argued 
that  Philippians  was  the  earliest  of  the  prison 
epistles.    In  any  case,  several  years  intervened 


196  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

between  it  and  Romans ;  and  the  appearance 
of  Jndaizers  at  Philippi  at  ever  so  late  a  pe- 
riod would  draw  from  St.  Paul  this  sort  of 
condemnation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  words 
of  chap.  ii.  23,  24  indicate,  more  positively 
than  those  of  Philem.  22,  that  the  prisoner's 
case  is  soon  to  be  decided;  and  Paul  must 
have  been  at  Rome  a  considerable  time  for  the 
Philippians  to  have  heard  of  his  necessities 
there,  and,  after  some  hindrance  and  delay 
(ch.  iv.  10,  11),  to  have  sent  Epaphroditus 
upon  his  journey.  The  epistle  cannot  have 
been  written  in  the  earliest  months  of  Paul's 
sojourn  at  Rome ;  comp.  chap.  i.  12-14  to  the 
same  effect.  We  notice,  too,  that  he  intends 
to  "  send  Timothy  shortly  "  to  Philippi.  Now, 
Timothy  had  not  left  him  when  he  wrote  to 
Coloss9e  (Col.  i.  1 ;  Philem.  1).  We  incline  to 
the  usual  opinion,  that  Philippians  was  the 
latest  epistle  of  Paul's  first  captivity.  In  its 
unique  and  splendid  theological  paragraph, 
chap.  ii.  6-11,  this  letter  gives  the  crowning 
expression  to  Paul's  doctrine  of  the  Person 
of  Christ,  as  taught  in  the  epistle  to  the  Co- 
lossians. 

Theological  teaching  is,  however,  only  in- 
cidental to  the  apostle's  purpose.  It  is  an 
epistle  of  the  heart,  a  true  love-letter,  full  of 
friendship,  gratitude,  and  confidence ;  it  makes 


EPISTLES   OF  THE  FIEST  IMPRISONMENT.     197 

those  intimate  revelations  of  the  soul's  history 
and  emotions,  which  the  deepest  sympathy 
and  mutual  affection  alone  are  wont  to  elicit. 
While  2  Corinthians  discloses  the  agitations 
that  rent  St.  Paul's  heart  in  the  great  conflict 
of  his  life,  Philippians  shows  us  the  spring  of 
his  inward  peace  and  strength.  We  are  ad- 
mitted to  Paul's  prison  chamber ;  we  share  his 
holy  and  joyous  meditations  and  commun- 
ings with  the  Divine  Master;  we  watch  his 
spirit  mellowing  to  its  loveliest  ripeness  in 
these  quiet  autumn  hours  of  life,  while  patience 
fulfils  in  him  its  perfect  work.  This  epistle 
holds,  as  we  have  already  shown,  a  cardinal 
place  in  Paul's  spiritual  biography. 

The  Philippians  were  dearest  to  Paul  of  all 
his  children^  in  the  faith.  Thrice  in  four 
chapters  he  calls  them  "  beloved  "  (see  ch.  iv.  1). 
"From  the  first  day  until  now"  they  had 
entered  into  his  plans  and  made  his  cause  and 
his  work  their  own.  His  intercourse  with 
them  was  never  marred  by  the  offences  and 
suspicions  with  which  other  churches  had 
troubled  him  (ch.  i.  3-7,  30).  On  his  first  mis- 
sion to  Macedonia,  they  sent  to  help  his 
necessity  at  Thessalonica  more  than  once; 
and  afterwards,  at  Corinth,  he  allowed  them 
to  minister  to  him,  when  he  refused  contribu- 
tions from  others  (ch.  iv.  15,  16 ;  comp.  2  Cor. 


198  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

xi.  9,  10).  Their  "  thought  for  him  now  blos- 
somed forth  again"  (ch.  iv.  10);  they  had 
wished  to  send  him  help  before  this,  but  the 
means  were  wanting.  Their  present  gift  was 
exceedingly  grateful  to  the  afflicted  apostle, 
whose  resources  must  have  been  low,  unable 
as  he  probably  was  in  his  imprisonment  to 
carry  on  with  advantage  his  trade  of  tent- 
making,  and  feeling  akeady  the  infirmities  of 
age  (Philem.  9).  But  he  rejoiced  chiefly  in  the 
love  displayed  by  his  Philippian  children,  and 
in  the  blessing  which  he  was  sure  Grod  would 
bestow  upon  them  in  return  (ch.  iv.  17-20). 
This  is  the  happiest  of  St.  Paul's  letters. 
"  Summa  epistolse,  Gmideo,  gaudete^^''  says  sen- 
tentious Bengel :  "7  rejoice^  do  you  rejoice  !  is 
the  sum  of  the  letter." 

The  present  from  Philippi  was  sent  by  the 
hand  of  Epapliroditus^  who  fell  sick  on  his 
journey  and  had  risked  his  life  on  the  errand 
(ch.  ii.  25-30).  He  was  a  minister  in  the  Phi- 
lippian church,  ranking  probably  amongst  its 
'^  bishops  "  (ch.  i.  1) ;  the  apostle  describes  him 
as  "  my  brother  and  fellow- worker  and  fellow- 
soldier"  (comp.  Philem.  2),  and  in  virtue  of 
this  commission  "  your  apostle  (i.e.,  delegate  or 
emissary)  and  sacred  minister  of  my  need " 
(ch.  ii.  25).  Epaphroditus  was  greatly  at- 
tached to  his  own  people  and  anxious  to  re- 


EPISTLES   OF  THE  FIEST  IMPKISONMENT.     199 

turn ;  he  felt  the  distress  which  his  illness  had 
caused  them.  The  apostle  accordingly  sends 
him  home  without  delay,  giving  him  this 
letter  of  acknowledgment  to  carry  with  him. 
His  own  appeal  at  Caesar's  court  is  entering 
upon  a  critical  stage;  so  soon  as  he  sees 
how  it  will  issue,  he  will  send  word  by  Timo- 
thy. But  he  is  "  confident  in  the  Lord  "  that 
he  will  be  able  himself  to  come  before  long 
(ch.  ii.  19-24) — a  presentiment  that  we  cannot 
believe  was  disappointed. 

Analysis  of  Philippians. 

This  epistle  has  less  of  definite  structure  and 
is  more  of  a  free  outpouring  of  the  heart  than 
any  other.  It  consists,  like  1  Thessalonians, 
of  personal  news,  blended  with  exhortation 
and  warning. 

After  the  Introduction  (ch.  i.  1-11),  consisting  of  Salu- 
tation, Thanksgiving,  and  Prayer  (that  knowledge  may  be 
added  to  love),  the  writer — 

§  1.  Describes  Ms  own  position  and  feelings,  chap.  i. 
12-36. 

§  2.  Exhorts  them  to  courage,  in  fellowship  with  him- 
self (vv.  27-30) ;  to  hrotlierly  unity,  chap.  ii.  1,  2  (comp. 
Eph.  iv.  1-6) ;  to  humility,  after  the  example  of  Christ 
(vv.  3-11) ;  and  to  fidelity,  which  would  ensure  his  own 
reward  (vv.  12-18). 

§  3.  Promises  to  send  them  Timothy,  while  he  despatches 
Epaphroditus  their  messenger  at  once,  warmly  commending 
both  (vv.  19-80). 


200  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

§  4.  Warns  them  against  Judaizers,  some  of  them  men 
of  corrupt  life,  whose  glorying  in  the  flesh  he  contrasts 
with  his  own  principles  and  aims,  bidding  them  be  fol- 
lowers of  him,  chap,  iii.-iv.  1  (comp.  1  Thess.  ii.  1-12 ; 
Gal.  vi.  13-14 ;  2  Cor.  xi.  16-xii.  12).  It  is  here  that  the 
apostle  so  fully  opens  his  heart  to  us. 

§  5.  Exhorts  them  again  to  unity ^  appealing  in  partic- 
ular to  two  ladies,  Euodia  and  Syntyche,  and  a  certain 
Clement  (vv.  2,  3)  ;  also  to  joyousness  of  spirit  (vv.  4-7), 
and  the  2^ ur suit  of  every  virtue  (vv.  8,  9). 

§  6.  Acknowledges  their  boimty,  and  expresses  the  emo- 
tions it  excited  in  him,  vv.  10-20. 

Final  Greeting  and  Benediction,  vv.  21-23. 

We  conclude  this  chapter  by  a  paraphrase 
of  some  difficult  passages  in  the  above  epistles. 

CoLOSS.  ii.  13-15 : 

* '  God  raised  you  up,  through  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
from  the  death  of  sin  and  from  your  unclean  Gentile  state. 
He  forgave  your  sins,  and  nailed  to  the  cross  the  cancelled 
bill  which  the  law  had  against  you.  At  the  same  time  He 
cast  off  from  Himself  the  old  veil  of  angelic  mediation,  and 
made  a  show  of  the  heavenly  powers,  who  followed  in 
Christ's  triumphal  train." 

Verse  18: 

"Let  none  defraud  you  of  the  heavenly  prize  (comp. 
ch.  i.  5),  though  he  fain  would  do  it  with  his  humility  and 
his  angel-worship,  with  his  vain  theorizing  based  on  fancied 
visions,  the  creation  of  a  carnal  and  inflated  mind." 

Veese  23: 

"Rules  which  have  word  indeed  (or  show)  of  wisdom, 
but  nothing  more.     These  rules  exhibit  a  love  of  worship 


EPISTLES   OF  THE   FIEST  IMPEISONMENT.     201 

and  a  humility  that  make  them  plausible,  and  an  outward 
austerity  which  sets  no  honor  on  the  body,  while  it  fails  to 
curb  the  sinful  flesh. " 

Ephes.  iii.  14-19 : 

' '  May  God  the  Father,  whose  sons  are  both  in  heaven 
and  on  earth,  give  you  through  His  Spirit  a  strength  of 
soul  proportioned  to  the  glory  of  the  revelation  He  has 
made  to  you  !  May  the  Christ  in  all  His  fulness  make  His 
home  through  faith  within  your  hearts  !  Thus  established 
in  love,  you  and  the  whole  Church  will  be  enabled  to  com- 
prehend the  vast  scope  and  dimensions  of  the  redeeming 
plan ; — yes,  and  you  will  know  the  greatness  of  the  love 
of  Christ,  though  it  passes  knowledge  !  Then  at  last  you 
will  be  filled,  and  your  nature  made  complete  with  all  the 
plenitude  of  God." 

Philip,  ii.  5-8 : 

"Let  that  mind  be  in  you,  which  was  also  in  Christ 
Jesus.  He  was  in  nature  essentially  Divine ;  but  He  did 
not  deem  His  equality  with  God  a  thing  to  be  clutched  at 
(to  be  asserted  violently  and  before  the  time).  On  the 
contrary.  He  laid  it  all  aside  ;  He  took  the  place  of  a  slave, 
and  appeared  in  human  form.  He  humbled  Himself  ;  He 
proved  obedient  unto  death — nay,  the  death  of  the  cross  !  " 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  THREE  PASTORALS. 

There  remain  for  our  consideration, 
amongst  tlie  letters  bearing  Paul's  name,  the 
three  addressed  to  Timothy  and  Titus,  which 
are  commonly  called  the  pastoral  epistles.  Fol- 
lowed only  by  Philemon  (and  Hebrews),  they 
close  the  canonical  order  of  Paul's  epistles, 
not  because  of  their  late  date,  and  certainly 
not  from  any  doubt  of  their  authenticity ;  but 
because  these  four  were  written  to  individuals, 
while  the  nine  preceding  them  were  addressed 
to  churches.  There  is  a  distinction,  however, 
in  the  fact  that  the  note  to  Philemon  is  con- 
cerned with  strictly  personal  matters,  while  to 
Timothy  and  Titus  the  apostle  writes  on  the 
affairs  of  the  church,  and  in  such  a  way  that 
great  part  of  his  letters  might  be,  and  prob- 
ably were,  read  in  the  public  assembly.  (Ob- 
serve the  plural  form  of  the  Benediction  in 
each,  and  the  double  Benediction  of  2  Tim.  iv. 
22.)  The  Pastorals  are  in  reality  quasi-public^ 
or  half -public  letters.  Still,  they  were  in- 
tended in  the  first  instance  for  ministers,  not 

202 


THE  THKEE  PASTOBALS.  203 

for  cliurclies ;  tliey  bear  on  the  qualifications 
and  duties  belonging  to  church  office  and  the 
care  of  souls.  We  entitle  them  accordingly 
the  ecclesiastical  epistles. 

They  belong  to  the  close  of  St.  Paul's  min- 
istry, and  have  throughout,  especially  2  Tim- 
othy, a  valedictory  character.  They  are  the 
apostle's  farewell  to  the  Church,  his  dying 
charge  to  his  successors  in  the  gospel  minis- 
try. This  lends  them  a  peculiar  weight  and 
pathos.  They  exhibit  St.  Paul  in  old  age,  and 
on  the  verge  of  martyrdom  (2  Tim.  iv.  6). 
The  picture  that  these  letters  give  us  of  the 
circumstances  and  feelings  of  the  apostle  now 
at  his  journey's  end,  slight  as  it  is  and  obscure 
in  some  of  its  details,  is  exceedingly  precious. 
It  is  all  that  time  has  left  to  us. 

Object  of  the  Pastoeals. 

Besides  the  personal  interest  attaching  to 
these  epistles,  and  besides  their  important 
bearing  on  the  constitution  of  the  apostolic 
Church,  they  throw  a  striking  light  upon  the 
progress  of  heresy  in  St.  Paul's  later  days.  In 
certain  points,  moreover — especially  in  regard 
to  the  Divine  attributes  (1  Tim.  i.  17,  iv.  10,  vi. 
15-18),  the  sanctity  of  nature  (1  Tim.  iv.  3-5), 
the  inspiration  of  Scripture  (2  Tim.  iii.  15-17), 
the  ethical  qualities  of  the  Christian  life  and 


204  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

tlieir  connection  with  evangelical  doctrine 
(1  Tim.  vi.  11, 12 ;  Tit.  ii.  1-iii.  11)— tliey  show 
a  further  development  of  his  teaching ;  at  any 
rate,  they  give  it  new  application  and  more 
distinct  expression. 

The  conservative  tendency  which  we  ob- 
served in  the  last  group  of  letters  now  be- 
comes thoroughly  pronounced ;  it  was  stimu- 
lated in  the  apostle  by  the  speculative  and 
divisive  character  that  marked  G-nosticism 
from  the  beginning.  "Practical  piety  and 
correct  doctrine  form  tho'  two  poles,  equally 
dominant,  of  the  Pastoral  epistles"  (Holtz- 
mann).  Amongst  the  many  novel  expres- 
sions— new  to  Paul's  vocabulary,  as  we  have 
learnt  it  from  the  other  epistles — none  are 
more  characteristic  than  the  words  godliness 
(1  Tim.  ii.  2, 10,  iii.  16,  iv.  7,  8,  etc.),  and  deposit 
(of  revealed  truth:  1  Tim.  vi.  20;  2  Tim.  i. 
12,  14). 

These  words  indicate  the  twofold  object 
which  had  now  become  Paul's  supreme  con- 
cern, the  burden  of  his  latest  thoughts  and 
cares  on  the  Church's  behalf.  This  purpose 
governs  and  shapes  the  directions  which  he 
gives  in  Tit.  i.  and  1  Tim.  iii.  for  the  choice 
of  bishops  (or  elders)  and  deacons.  False  and 
sophistical  teachers  were  imposing  themselves 
on  the  Christian  societies,  men  such  as  the 


THE  THREE  PASTOEALS.  205 

apostle  had  described  in  Acts  xx.  29,  30 — the 
Colossian  Doctor  was  a  sample  of  them — 
whose  asceticism  and  scriptural  jargon  were 
calculated  to  impress  superficial  minds  (1  Tim. 
i.  6,  7,  iv.  1-3,  vi.  3-10).  They  are  the  fore- 
runners of  impostors  even  more  corrupt  and 
dangerous  than  themselves:  so  "the  Spirit 
expressly  speaks  "  to  Paul  (1  Tim.  iv.  1 ;  2  Tim. 
iii.  1-9,  iv.  3,  4).  In  view  of  this  develop- 
ment, and  with  strong  apprehension  that  these 
"  grievous  wolves  "  would  seek  to  prey  on  the 
Church  under  the  shepherd's  garb,  the  apostle 
pens  the  remarkable  instructions  which  lie 
before  us  here. 

Obviously,  they  are  not  intended  as  a  com- 
plete description  of  what  the  bishops  and  dea- 
cons should  be.  To  the  need  in  its  ministry 
of  other,  more  shining  gifts  the  Church  was 
sufficiently  alive.  What  the  apostle  insists 
upon  is  that  solid  moral  qualities  shall  not  be 
overlooked,  nor  taken  for  granted  without  in- 
quiry in  the  appointment  of  its  officers.  The 
danger  was  lest  talent  and  cleverness  should 
carry  the  day,  and  the  leadership  of  the  Church 
fall  into  the  hands  of  men  deficient  in  the  ele- 
ments of  a  worthy  Christian  character.  "  The 
prescriptions  of  these  epistles,"  as  Dr.  Kiihl 
aptly  says,  "bear  throughout  an  eminently 
practical  stamp ;  they  find  their  characteristic 


206  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

expression  in  the  exhortation  to  Timothy,  Be 
thou  a  imttern  of  the  believers.  The  false  intel- 
lectualism  of  the  errorists  is  traced  to  their 
want  of  practical  piety ;  and  this  euseheia,  this 
open  sense  for  the  divine,  has  in  turn  its  prac- 
tical guarantee  in  a  Christianly  moral  hfe. 
Such  piety  it  is  the  aim  of  these  writings  in 
their  whole  tenor  to  quicken  and  renew." 

The  aged  apostle  bends  all  his  efforts  to 
guard  and  strengthen  the  spirit  of  religion. 
Himself  "ready  to  be  offered  up,"  with  his 
battle  fought,  his  course  run,  and  the  great 
fabric  of  his  doctrine  built  to  its  completeness 
in  Christ,  his  one  remaining  care  is  to  see  the 
deposit  committed  to  faithful  and  worthy 
hands.  He  desires  to  leave  behind  him  in 
the  churches  he  has  founded  a  community  so 
ordered  and  equipped,  so  rooted  and  builded 
in  Christ,  that  it  shall  be  for  all  time  to  come 
a  "  pillar  and  ground  of  the  truth."  To  the 
Christian  society  thus  fully  constituted,  is 
committed  the  mystery  of  godliness  now 
fully  revealed.  Such  is  the  situation  which 
the  fourth  group  of  the  Pauline  epistles  re- 
veals to  us.  They  are,  in  effect,  the  last  will 
and  testament  of  the  apostle  of  the  G-entiles. 
They  stand  related  to  St.  Paul's  ministry 
somewhat  as  does  the  valedictory  prayer  of 
John  xvii.  to  the  teaching  of  Jesus.     The 


THE  THEEE  PASTORALS.  207 

servant  seems,  in  some  sort,  to  be  saying  as 
liis  Master ;  "  The  words  which  Thou  gavest 
me  I  have  given  them.  .  .  .  The  glory  which 
Thou  hast  given  me  I  have  given  them,  that 
they  may  be  made  perfect  in  one"  (comp. 
1  Tim.  i.  11-18;  2  Tim.  i.  8-14,  ii.  2,  8-10; 
also  Eph.  iv.  11-13).* 

The  Pastorals  and  the  Earlier  Epistles. 

In  the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  the  letters 
to  Timothy  and  Titus  find  the  most  definite 
and  numerous  points  of  attachment  amongst 
St.  Paul's  earlier  writings.  Those  who  con- 
demn these  epistles  as  unauthentic  are  com- 
monly obliged  to  place  Ephesians  in  the 
same  category.  In  Ephesians  the  step  is 
completed  by  which  we  pass  from  the  idea 
of  the  local  to  that  of  the  oecumenical  Church. 
In  it  we  see  already  many  buildings  com- 
bined to  form  the  one  "  holy  temple  in  the 
Lord"  (ch.  ii.  21,22);  in  other  words,  the 
Church  has  taken  on  a  connectional  in  addi- 
tion to  its  congregational  character.    There 

*  For  fuUer  discussion  of  the  Pastoral  epistles  and  defence 
of  the  Pauline  authorship,  the  writer  begs  to  refer  to  his  es- 
say on  the  subject  appended  to  Sabatier's  TJte  Apostle  Paid; 
or  to  the  London  Quarterly  Eeview  for  October,  1889,  and  1890. 
See  also  the  discussion  in  the  Appendix  to  Farrar's  Life  and 
WorJcs  of  St.  Paid. 


208  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

also  we  find  a  collective  and  graduated  min- 
istry in  existence,  bestowed  by  the  Head  of 
the  Church  for  the  perfecting  of  His  saints, — 
for  the  protection  of  the  community  in  its 
infant  and  imperfect  state  from  the  assaults 
of  error,  and  for  the  development  and  utiliza- 
tion of  the  various  powers  and  capacities 
diffused  through  its  individual  membership 
(ch.  iv.  11-16).  The  Pastorals  do  but  expand 
and  apply  the  conception  of  the  Church  and 
its  ministry,  that  in  essentials  is  already  pres- 
ent here.  From  the  thought  of  the  "  great 
house"  unfolded  in  Ephesians  we  pass  to 
that  of  the  "  vessels "  of  its  furniture,  their 
qualities  and  uses,  and  the  solemn  responsi- 
bilities which  accrue  to  them.  Their  impor- 
tance lies  in  the  greatness  of  the  Church  they 
serve ;  and  hers  in  the  greatness  of  the  truth 
she  holds  in  trust  for  mankind  (1  Tim.  iii.  15, 
16 ;  2  Tim.  ii.  19-21). 

With  Colossians  the  Pastorals  are  connected 
as  closely,  if  not  so  obviously,  as  with  Ephe- 
sians. Comp.  1  Tim.  iv.  3-5  with  Col.  ii. 
20-23—1  Tim.  ii.  5-7  with  Col.  i.  15-23,  ii. 
9-15—1  Tim.  vi.  3,  4,  20,  21,  2  Tim.  ii.  16,  iii.  6, 
Tit.  i.  13-16  with  Col.  ii.  2-4,  8,  16,  22;  and 
it  will  be  seen  that,  with  considerable  variety, 
there  was  a  fundamental  resemblance  in  the 
errors  combated  by  the  earlier  and  later  writ- 


THE   THREE  PASTORALS.  209 

ings.  In  both  cases  the  false  doctrine  de- 
nounced was  Judaistic  in  complexion,  and 
yet  radically  different  from  the  Pharisaic 
legalism  of  the  Galatian  "troublers."  Con- 
tempt for  the  body,  denial  of  God's  part  in 
creation  and  in  the  physical  order  of  the 
world  underlay  both  types  of  heresy.  Christ's 
mediatorial  rights  were  invaded  and  limited 
by  both. 

But  the  new  Gnosticizing  "method  of  error" 
(Eph.  iv.  14)  now  infringed  openly  upon  the 
prerogatives  of  God.  The  "fables  and  lo- 
gomachies "  of  these  theosophists  sapped  the 
basis  of  religion.  Theories  that  separate  God 
from  nature  and  body  from  spirit,  are  in  the 
long  run  fatal  to  piety.  They  tend  to  dis- 
solve the  rehgious  conception  of  life  and  to 
destroy  "  faith  and  a  good  conscience,"  godli- 
ness and  virtue,  both  at  once.  The  other 
common  features  we  mark  are  the  intellect- 
ual pretension,  the  argumentative  style,  the 
domineering  attitude  and  the  self-seeking 
spirit  of  this  class  of  teachers.  In  the  error- 
ists  of  the  Pastorals,  side  by  side  with  the 
rigorism  of  the  Colossian  teacher,  symptoms 
begin  to  appear  of  the  license  which  this  type 
of  doctrine  inevitably  breeds  (1  Tim.  vi.  5-10 ; 
2  Tim.  iii.  1-8;  Tit.  i.  12-16).  The  "Jewish 
fables  "  and  "  endless  genealogies  "  alluded  to 


210  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

in  1  Tim.  i.  4,  Tit.  i.  14,  cannot  be  explained 
with  certainty.  Probably  they  were  con- 
cerned with  the  different  ranks  and  sup- 
posed families  (comp.  Eph.  iii.  15)  of  the 
angels,  whom  we  found  the  Colossian  teacher 
already  worshipping  at  the  expense  of  Christ. 
At  a  very  early  time  Jewish  mysticism  by 
its  allegorical  interpretations  deduced  an  elab- 
orate angelology  from  the  Old  Testament. 

We  have  already  pointed  out,  in  the  last 
chapter,  the  link  of  connection  between  these 
letters  and  Fhilipinans  in  their  similar  refer- 
ences to  the  apostle's  death.  This  he  con- 
templates as  possible  in  Phil.  i.  20-23,  ii.  17 ; 
but  in  2  Tim.  iv.  5-8,  18  it  is  inevitable  and 
imminent.  There  is  a  further  resemblance 
between  this  and  the  last  group  of  epistles 
generally,  in  the  manner  in  which  the  apostle 
writes  of  his  imprisonment  and  his  sufferings 
in  the  cause  of  Christ :  comp.  2  Tim.  i.  11, 12, 
ii.  9,  10,  iv.  17  with  Col.  i.  24-28,  iv.  3,  4,  Eph. 
iii.  1-5,  13,  vi.  19,  20,  Phil.  i.  16. 

In  one  singular  passage,  1  Tim.  i.  8-11,  we 
have  an  echo  of  the  apostle's  bold  doctrine  of 
Galatians  and  Romans  concerning  the  design 
of  the  Mosaic  law,  which,  he  shows,  was  in- 
tended as  a  whip  for  the  sinner,  not  a  yoke 
for  the  saint:  see  Gal.  iii.  10,  19,  Rom.  iii. 
19,  20,  iv.  15,  V.  20 ;  and  comp.  Rom.  vi.  14, 


THE  THEEE   PASTOKALS.  211 

vii.  5,  6,  viii.  2.  The  phrase  "  who  gave  Him- 
self a  ransom-price  for  all"  (1  Tim.  ii.  6),  con- 
tains the  term  which  brings  to  its  finest 
expression  the  doctrine  of  the  vicarious  sac- 
rifice tanght  in  the  evangelical  epistles.  And 
the  doctrinal  paragraphs  of  Tit.  ii.  11-14,  iii. 
4-7  unfold  in  ripened  and  rounded  form  the 
whole  Pauline  plan  of  salvation.  In  the 
same  connection  we  note  the  solemn  intro- 
duction to  the  epistle  to  Titus  (i.  1-4),  which 
reminds  us  both  of  the  opening  and  the  clos- 
ing words  of  Romans. 

With  1  Corintliians  we  find  two  incidental, 
but  not  unimportant  points  of  connection: 
(1)  the  denial  of  a  bodily  resurrection  on  the 
part  of  "  Hymenseus  and  Philetus "  (2  Tim. 
ii.  18 ;  comp.  1  Cor.  xv.),  made  doubtless  in 
the  interests  of  a  false  spiritualism ;  and  (2) 
the  care  taken  to  regulate  the  position  and 
behavior  of  women  in  the  church:  comp. 
1  Tim.  ii.  9-15,  iii.  11,  v.  3-16,  2  Tim.  iii.  6,  7, 
Tit.  ii.  3-5  with  1  Cor.  xi.  2-16,  xiv.  34-36. 
This  subject  had  at  different  times  consider- 
ably exercised  the  apostle's  mind. 

Finally,  when  we  compare  the  first  group  of 
the  epistles  with  the  last,  we  find  that  they 
have  one  cardinal  theme  in  common — viz., 
that  of  the  Second  Coming.  This  is,  in  a 
sense,  the  alpha  and  omega  of  Paul's  teach- 


212  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

ing.  Many  changes  have  passed  over  him  in 
the  twelve  years  intervening.  He  no  longer 
expects,  nor  even  desires  to  see  in  the  flesh 
his  Lord's  return.  But  he  is  none  the  less 
"  looking  for  and  hasting  unto  the  coming  of 
the  day  of  God."  The  appearing  of  Christ  in 
His  Divine  glory  is  "  the  blessed  hope  "  which 
all  believers  are  awaiting  (Tit.  ii.  13).  "  Be- 
fore God  and  Christ  Jesus,  who  is  about  to 
judge  both  quick  and  dead,  and  by  His  ap- 
pearing and  His  kingdom,"  the  apostle  ad- 
dresses his  final  charge  to  Timothy  (2  Tim. 
iv.  1,  2,  5).  As  the  time  of  his  departure 
approached,  the  advent  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
shone  forth  upon  St.  Paul's  spirit  with  new 
brightness,  and  shed  its  glory  over  the  dark- 
ness of  the  grave  and  the  last  steps  of  his 
earthly  journey.  Comp.  Phil.  iii.  20,  21; 
Eom.  viii.  18-25 ;  2  Cor.  iv.  16,  v.  10,  for  the 
like  association  of  thought  at  an  earlier  fcime. 

Authenticity  of  the  Pastokal  Epistles. 

A  thorough  study  of  these  and  other  links 
of  connection  between  the  Pastorals  and  the 
earlier  letters  will,  we  think,  deprive  of  their 
force  the  arguments  that  are  urged  by  many 
critical  writers  against  the  claim  they  make 
to  be  the  work  of  St.  Paul.  It  is  true  that 
there  is  no  place  for  these  writings  within 


THE   THREE   PASTORALS.  213 

tlie  limits  of  liis  life  as  known  to  ns  from  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  that  all  other  con- 
temporary evidence  has  disappeared.  But 
the  narrative  of  the  Acts  closes  in  such  a 
way  as  to  allow,  if  not  actually  to  suggest  the 
probability  that  his  life  was  extended  beyond 
the  two  years  there  assigned  to  his  imprison- 
ment at  Rome  (ch.  xxviii.  30,  31).  There  is 
nothing  whatever  in  Luke's  narrative  to  dis- 
countenance the  belief,  favored  by  tradition, 
that  the  apostle  was  at  last  acquitted  of  the 
charge  on  which  he  had  appealed  to  Caesar, 
and  set  free  to  resume  his  labors  for  another 
term.  There  is  not  a  shred  of  historical  evi- 
dence against  the  letters.  The  witness  of  the 
early  Church  to  their  place  in  the  Kew  Tes- 
tament Canon  and  their  Pauline  authorship 
is  as  clear,  full,  and  unhesitating  as  that 
given  to  the  other  epistles.  It  is  only  on 
grounds  of  internal  criticism  that  objections 
of  real  weight  can  be  raised. 

So  far  as  these  criticisms  are  drawn  from 
the  contents  of  the  epistles,  from  the  novelty 
of  the  topics  of  which  they  treat,  from  the 
advanced  development  of  the  errors  they  op- 
pose and  of  the  church  system  which  they 
imply,  we  have  already  met  them  by  antici- 
pation. The  condition  of  things  with  which 
St.  Paul  had  now  to  deal  arose,  as  we  have 


214  THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL. 

tried  to  show,  out  of  that  described  in  his 
previous  letters;  the  doctrinal  and  adminis- 
trative instructions  of  those  letters  are  the 
natural  sequel  of  St.  Paul's  earlier  teaching 
and  missionary  work.  Things  had,  indeed, 
marched  quickly  in  the  three  or  four  years 
separating  this  group  from  the  last;  but  it 
was  an  advance,  alike  on  the  side  of  attack 
and  defence,  upon  the  lines  already  laid  down ; 
and  the  rate  of  movement  is  not  more  rapid 
than  we  might  expect  in  the  early  days  of 
the  Church,  and  in  a  time  of  so  much  mental 
activity  and  unrest. 

The  objections  drawn  from  the  language 
and  style  of  the  epistles  are  perhaps  more 
plausible.  In  these  thirteen  chapters,  of  less 
than  the  ordinary  length,  there  are,  excluding 
proper  names,  171  words  used  nowhere  else 
in  the  New  Testament,  an  average  of  thirteen 
to  the  chapter.  To  a  large  extent,  these  are 
accounted  for  by  the  peculiar  subject-matter ; 
St.  Paul  uses  new  names  in  writing  of  new 
things.  The  apostle's  vocabulary  was  un- 
commonly fresh ;  he  was  inventive  and  orig- 
inal in  language;  and  the  habit  of  using 
novel  and  singular  expressions  grew  upon 
him.  In  1  and  2  Thessalonians  we  find  five 
hap  ax-leg  omena  {i.e.,  words  confined  to  these 
writings)  to  the  chapter;  in  Philippians,  an 


THE  THEEE  PASTOEALS.  215 

epistle  of  similar  character  but  written  ten 
years  later,  there  are  ten !  In  general,  a 
careful  examination  of  the  lexical  and  gram- 
matical features  of  the  Pastorals  leads  us  to 
conclude  that  they  are  Pauline  in  the  basis 
and  structure  of  their  language;  and  that 
they  carry  further,  down  to  a  later  stage, 
some  of  Paul's  most  characteristic  manner- 
isms,— his  fondness  for  original  compound 
terms,  and  his  habit  of  stringing  together 
participial  and  relative  clauses  to  an  indefi- 
nite length,  and  of  breaking  off  his  longer 
sentences  unfinished  (see  e.g.  1  Tim.  vi.  13-16 ; 
2  Tim.  i.  3-12 ;  Tit.  i.  1-4,  ii.  11-14).  The  fre- 
quency of  medical  terms  is  naturally  ex- 
plained by  Luke's  companionship  in  Paul's 
later  years  (2  Tim.  iv.  11 ;  comp.  Col.  iv.  14). 
And  occasional  Latinisms  betray  the  effect 
on  Paul's  speech  of  his  residence  in  the 
West. 

In  wealth  of  argument,  in  fire  and  vehe- 
mence, we  admit  that  these  epistles  do  not 
compare  with  the  great  epistles  of  the  legal- 
ist controversy:  St.  Paul  did  not  speak  or 
write  always  at  the  same  high  pitch ;  nor  do 
the  subjects  he  is  here  concerned  with  call 
for  the  same  mental  effort.  Writing  to  his 
intimates,  his  companions  and  sons  in  the 
gospel,  the  apostle  has  no  need  to  expatiate 


216  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

upon  doctrine,  to  prove  or  defend  the  great 
principles  of  his  theology.  These  appear  in 
the  Pastorals  as  a  conquest  securely  won,  a 
foundation  now  fixed  and  firmly  laid.  The 
Thessalonian  epistles,  as  we  saw,  are  on  a 
more  ordinary  level  in  this  respect  than  those 
of  the  following  group:  when  those  letters 
were  written,  the  legalistic  agitation  had  not 
commenced;  by  this  time  it  had  compara- 
tively subsided. 

These  are  the  works  of  the  apostle's  old 
age.  The  fiery  vigor  of  his  prime  is  gone. 
But  in  its  place  there  is  a  holy  tranquillity, 
a  tender,  pensive  strain  of  recollection,  and  a 
rich  sunset  glow  inexpressibly  beautiful  and 
touching.  It  is  the  veteran  apostle  to  whom 
we  listen,  the  sun  of  whose  glorious  day  is 
sinking  to  its  rest.  This  mellowed  style,  this 
softer  and  calmer  tone  was  already  discern- 
ible in  the  letters  of  the  third  group.  They 
are  the  afternoon,  as  these  are  the  evening 
epistles.  If  there  are  the  signs  of  age  in 
these  writings,  it  is  that  of  "  such  an  one  as 
Paul  the  aged." 

Order  and  Date  of  the  Three  Epistles. 

Writing  to  Colossse  and  Philippi  during  his 
previous  imprisonment,  St.  Paul  expressed 
his  intention  to  visit  those  towns  immedi- 


THE  THKEE   PASTORALS.  217 

ately  upon  his  release  (Philem.  22,  Phil.  ii. 
24).  He  would  naturally  make  it  his  first 
business  to  revisit  the  old  churches,  and  the 
districts  in  which  he  had  formerly  labored. 
Then  the  way  would  be  open  for  that  voyage 
to  Spain  which  he  contemplated  six  years 
before  (Eom.  xv.  24),  and  which  Clement  of 
Eome  appears  to  tell  us  that  the  apostle 
actually  achieved.  Whether  it  was  upon  his 
way  back  from  Spain,  or  under  some  other 
circumstances,  we  find  from  the  letter  to 
Titus  that  St.  Paul  during  this  period,  short- 
ly before  he  wrote  this  epistle,  had  conducted 
a  mission  in  Crete,  where  he  left  Titus  in 
charge,  to  organize  the  churches  there  estab- 
lished, churches  in  which  from  the  begin- 
ning a  Grnostic  leaven  had  been  at  work 
(ch.  i.  5-14).  He  writes,  apparently,  in  the 
course  of  the  summer,  intending  to  winter  at 
Nicopolis,  the  port  of  Epirus,  opposite  to 
Italy.  There  Titus  is  desired  to  meet  him 
(ch.  iii.  12). 

Turning  to  2  Timothy,  manifestly  the  last  of 
the  three,  we  find  that  Titus  has  gone  "to 
Dalmatia,"  which  lay  to  the  north  of  Nicopo- 
olis,  while  Tychicus  had  been  sent  not  to 
Crete  (Tit.  iii.  12)  but  to  Ephesus,  from 
which  place  (comp.  1  Tim.  i.  3)  Paul  expects 
his  dear  child  Timothy  soon  to  come  to  him, 


218  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

now  a  prisoner  at  Rome  (2  Tim.  iv.  10,  12). 
"  Do  thy  diligence  to  come  quickly,  to  come 
before  winter,"  pleads  the  old,  forsaken  man 
(vv.  9,  21) ;  and  he  asks  Timothy  to  bring 
"  the  cloak  left  at  Troas,"  which  the  prisoner 
would  miss  in  the  cold  days  of  winter.  So 
near  are  these  two  letters  to  each  other, 
that  the  "  winter "  of  Tit.  iii.  12  must  surely 
have  been  the  same  as  that  of  2  Tim.  iv.  21. 
2  Tim.  iv.  13,  20  alludes  to  the  writer  having 
been  recently  at  Miletus,  also  at  Troas,  and 
(seemingly)  at  Corinth, — points  which  indi- 
cate a  journey  westwards  from  Asia  Minor 
through  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  such  as 
would  bring  Paul  to  Nicopolis.  During  this 
journey,  soon  after  he  had  written  to  Titus, 
Paul  was  arrested,  on  some  charge  in  which 
"Alexander  the  coppersmith"  (of  Ephesus) 
played  a  chief  part  (ch.  iv.  14,  15) ;  he  was 
hurried  to  Eome  for  a  second  trial,  under  cir- 
cumstances likely  to  issue  in  his  condemna- 
tion and  death.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
in  the  interval  subsequent  to  the  apostle's 
release  the  Christians  had  become  objects  of 
Nero's  fury ;  and  the  frightful  persecution  of 
autumn  64  had  taken  place  at  Eome.  The 
epistle  to  Titus  and  the  second  to  Timothy 
we  assign  to  the  last  year  of  Paul's  life,  the 
summer  and  autumn  of  66  or  67  a.d. 


THE   THKEE   PASTOEALS.  219 

1  Timothy  was  tlie  earliest  of  the  three, 
being  written  in  the  course  of  the  journey 
above  referred  to,  and  in  all  probability  from 
Macedonia.  "I  exhorted  thee,"  writes  the 
apostle,  "to  tarry  at  Ephesus,  when  I  was 
going  into  Macedonia"  (1  Tim.  i.  3).  It  is 
inferred  from  these  words  that  St.  Paul  had 
just  been  at  Ephesus,  and  had  left  Timothy 
behind  him  there,  as  he  had  left  Titus  at 
Crete  (ch.  i.  5),  to  carry  on  the  administra- 
tion of  the  church  and  complete  the  work  he 
had  himself  taken  in  hand.  But  the  two 
cases  are  very  different;  and  the  language 
the  apostle  uses  in  the  two  letters  is  differ- 
ent. For  our  part,  we  do  not  believe  that 
Paul  ever  set  foot  in  Ephesus  after  he  left 
the  city  as  recorded  in  Acts  xx.  (comp.  ver. 
25).  He  departed  then  in  peril  of  his  life, 
shaken  both  in  mind  and  body.  It  was  "  the 
Jews  from  Asia "  who  attempted  to  murder 
him  in  Jerusalem,  seeing  with  him  "  Trophi- 
mus  the  Ephesian  "  (Acts  xxi.  27-29).  Alex- 
ander, the  Jewish  craftsman  of  Ephesus  (xix. 
33,  34),  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  conspiracy 
now  formed  against  him,  which  in  the  event 
proved  fatal.  The  "Asiarchs,"  his  friends  in 
the  first  instance,  seem  afterwards  to  have 
betrayed  him  (comp.  Acts  xix.  31  and  2  Tim. 
i.  15,  iv.  16).    Ephesus  was  for   St.  Paul  a 


220  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

fatal  place ;  and  lie  may  well  have  been  for- 
bidden of  the  Holy  Ghost,  from  the  time  of 
Acts  XX.  35,  to  return  there.  What  he  really 
says  in  1  Tim.  i.  3  is :  "I  besought  thee  to 
stay  on  at  Ephesus,  when  on  my  journey  to 
Macedonia." 

We  gather  that  the  apostle  met  Timothy, 
who  had  been  for  some  time  stationed  at 
Ephesus,  not  very  far  from  the  city — possi- 
bly at  Miletus  (2  Tim.  iv.  20 ;  comp.  Acts  xx. 
17) — and  gave  him  instructions  respecting 
his  duties  there,  which  he  repeats  and  en- 
larges in  this  letter  wiitten  shortly  after  the 
interview.  Timothy  was  very  unwilling  to 
remain  at  this  trying  post;  he  parted  from 
the  apostle  in  tears  (2  Tim.  i.  4).  His  dis- 
couragement became  extreme  after  Paul's 
departure  (2  Tim.  i.  7,  8,  ii.  1-13,  iv.  5) ;  and 
he  was  even  tempted  to  give  up  his  work. 
Some  critics  indeed  infer  from  the  language 
of  the  second  epistle  that,  when  St.  Paul 
wrote  it,  Timothy  had  actually  retreated  from 
Ephesus;  but  the  reference  of  chap.  iv.  19 
(comp.  i.  16-18)  speaks  against  that.  Evi- 
dently he  was  wavering  and  in  danger  of 
drawing  back,  if  he  had  not  actually  done 
so.  Had  St.  Paul  himself  visited  the  church 
of  Ephesus,  he  would  have  dealt  in  person 
with  the  matters  that  he  now  commits  to  his 


THE   THREE   PASTORALS.  221 

assistant;  in  any  case,  we  should  have  had 
some  allusion  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
visit.  The  excommunication  inflicted  upon 
"Hymen^us  and  Alexander"  (1  Tim.  i.  20) 
may  have  been  pronounced  from  a  distance, 
as  easily  as  that  directed  against  the  Corinth- 
ian profligate  in  1  Cor.  v.  3-5. 

The  most  hkely  theory  of  St.  Paul's  move- 
ments at  this  time  is  as  follows.  Returning 
from  Crete  in  the  spring  of  66  or  67  a.d., 
he  voyaged  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
where  he  touched  at  Miletus,  sending  for 
Timothy  from  Ephesus,  as  he  had  done  for 
the  Ephesian  elders  seven  years  before  on 
his  way  to  Jerusalem.  In  this  interview  he 
persuaded  Timothy,  much  against  his  will,  to 
remain  in  Ephesus  for  a  while  longer,  until 
he  should  himself  return  to  Asia  (1  Tim.  iii. 
14, 15),  and  promised  to  send  him  before  long 
a  letter  of  full  instructions.  Thence  Paul 
continued  his  voyage  northwards,  through 
Troas  to  Macedonia.  There  he  wrote  to  Tim- 
othy, and  shortly  after  in  a  similar  strain  to 
Titus,  who  was  engaged  in  Crete.  From 
Macedonia  he  went  on  to  Corinth,  intending 
to  make  Nicopolis  the  goal  of  his  year's  trav- 
els; but  was  seized  before  the  summer  was 
over,  and  carried  a  prisoner  to  Rome  to  meet 
his  death. 


222  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

The  three  letters  resemble  each  other  and 
differ  from  all  the  rest  to  such  a  degree,  that 
we  cannot  be  mistaken  in  treating  them  as 
closely  continuous,  and  separated  from  the 
pre^T-Ous  group  by  a  considerable  interval. 
Titus  differs  from  the  other  two  less  than 
they  from  each  other,  and  claims  a  place  be- 
tween them.  Like  1  Timothy  it  is  disciplin- 
ary and  ethical  in  contents,  while  the  interest 
of  2  Timothy  is  mainly  personal. 

Analysis  of  the  Pastokals. 

These  epistles  are  loose  in  structure,  and 
have  the  freedom  and  spontaneity  of  oral 
conversation.  There  is,  however,  something 
of  a  definite  order  in  1  Timothy  and  Titus. 

In  1  Timothy,  after  a  brief  salutation  (ch.  i. 
1,  2),  the  apostle — 

§  1.  Reminds  Timothy  of  the  charge  laid 
upon  him,  especially  to  inculcate  right  views 
concerning  the  law,  in  opposition  to  Jewish 
fables,  chap.  i.  3-11,  18-20.  This  charge  he 
enforces  by  reference  to  his  oivn  ministry, 
which  occasions  an  outburst  of  praise,  vv. 
12-17. 

§  2.  He  gives  directions  as  to  the  conduct  9f 
public  prayer,  and  the  deportment  of  women  in 
connection  therewith,  chap.  ii. 


THE   THEEE  PASTORALS.  223 

§  3.  He  gives  instructions  respecting  the  ap- 
pointment of  bishops  and  deacons,  chap.  iii. 
1-13 ;  inferring  the  importance  of  their  choice 
from  the  greatness  of  the  Church,  w.  14-16. 

§  4.  He  warns  Timothy  against  heretical 
teachers,  chap.  iv.  1-5,  and  again  in  chap.  vi. 
3-10,  20,  21. 

§  5.  He  exhorts  him  as  to  the  personal  char- 
acter he  must  maintain  and  the  line  of  con- 
duct he  must  follow,  in  contrast  with  these 
men,  chap.  iv.  6-16,  vi.  11-16. 

^  6.  He  instructs  him  as  to  his  behavior  to- 
wards particular  classes  in  the  Church— the 
old  and  the  young,  aged  and  younger  widows, 
ruling  elders  and  those  under  accusation, 
household  slaves,  and  rich  men,  chap.  v.  1- 
vi.  2,  vi.  17-19. 

The  letter  to  Titus  is  concerned  with  a  state 
of  things  in  Crete  similar  to  that  existing  at 
Ephesus,  but  less  complicated.  It  falls  into 
two  divisions— after  a  full  exordium  (ch.  i.  1-4) 
reminding  us  of  Eom.  i.  1-7. 

§  1.  Concerning  Church  order,  as  regards— 

(1)  The  qualifications  of  its  officers,  chap  i. 

5-9. 

(2)  The  character  of  its  disturbers,  vv.  10-16. 
<^  2.  Concerning  Christian  conduct,  in  rela- 
tion— 


224  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

(1)  To  family  life,  chap.  ii. 

(2)  To  civil  and  social   life,  chap.  iii.  1-8; 

the  motives  appealed  to  being  derived 
from  the  first  principles  of  the  gospel. 
These  two  chapters   give  ns  invaluable 
hints  on  the  method  of  Christian  ethics. 

(3)  To  heretical  persons,  whom  Titus  is  to 

shun,  after  repeated  warning,  w.  9-11. 

The  Conclusion,  chap.  iii.  12-15,  contains 
interesting  personal  references,  which  go  far 
to  verify  the  genuineness  of  the  letter. 

2  Timothy  is  throughout  a  letter  of  exhor- 
tation and  appeal.  The  apostle,  after  salut- 
ing Timothy  (ch.  i.  1,  2),  and  thanking  God 
for  all  that  his  "dear  child"  had  been  to  him 
(w.  3-5)— 

§  1.  Exhorts  him  to  courage,  in  view  of  the 
Divine  glory  of  the  gospel,  and  in  spite  of  his 
own  desertion  and  disgrace,  chap.  i.  6-ii.  13. 

He  bids  him,  by  the  way,  maintain  the  exact 
form  of  apostolic  teaching,  and  commit  it  in 
turn  to  worthy  and  competent  men  (ch.  i. 
13,  14,  ii.  2). 

§  2.  To  faithfulness  in  the  maintenance  of 
sound  doctrine:  (1)  against  the  idle  debates 
and  ungodly  life  of  heretical  teachers,  with 
whose  behavior  he  compares  his  own  (ch.  iii. 


THE   THREE    PASTORALS.  225 

10,  11) ;  (2)  faitlifiilness  the  more  needful  as 
his  course  ivas  nearly  run, — chap.  ii.  14-iv.  8. 

§  3.  He  concludes  by  begging  Timothy  to 
come  to  him  soon,  describing  his  lonely  condi- 
tion, yet  unshaken  confidence  in  his  heavenly 
Master,  chap.  iv.  9-18. 

In  the  final  greetings  new  names  appear, 
two  of  them  Roman  (Pudens  and  Claudia); 
and  one,  Linus,  which  figures  in  the  list  of 
the  first  bishops  of  Rome.  The  personal 
references  in  2  Tim.  iv.  are  the  most  numer- 
ous and  varied  that  occur  in  any  epistle,  ex- 
cept that  to  the  Romans. 

The  apostle  passes  from  our  view  with  the 
double  Benediction  on  his  lips :  The  Lord  he 
with  thy  Spirit ;  Grace  he  with  you. 

Paraphrases. 

1  Tim.  i.  3-5. — "  (I  write  now)  in  accordance  with  the 
request  I  made  when  on  my  way  to  Macedonia,  that  you 
should  remain  in  Ephesus.  I  wished  you  to  charge  certain 
persons  to  give  up  their  strange  teaching  and  their  taste 
for  fables  and  spun-out  genealogies  ;  which  raise  discus- 
sions, but  do  not  further  God's  dispensation  of  grace  to 
the  men  of  faith.  Love,  verily,  is  the  practical  end  of  all 
our  teaching, — the  love  that  comes  of  a  pure  heart  and  a 
good  conscience  and  undissembled  faith." 

Chap.  iii.  14-16. — "I  write  these  things,  hoping  indeed 
to  come  quickly  to  you.  But  I  may  be  delayed ;  and  I 
wish  you  to  know  how  you  should  behave  yourself  within 


226  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

God's  house.  For  it  is,  I  say,  the  Church  of  the  living 
God  ;  it  is  the  pillar  and  basis  on  which  rests  the  truth. 
And  the  greatness  of  that  truth,  that  mystery  committed 
to  the  men  of  God  (Eph.  iii.  5  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  6-16),  who  can 
deny  ? — the  mystery  of  Him  who  was  manifested  in  the 
fleshly  sphere,  was  justified  in  the  spiritual  (Rom.  i.  4 ; 

1  Cor.  ii.  8,  14),  appeared  to  the  angels ;  was  proclaimed 
amongst  the  Gentiles,  was  believed  in  the  world,  was  taken 
up  in  glory ! "  [For  the  connection  of  the  last  clauses, 
comp.  1  Pet.  i.  7,  8,  20,  21.] 

Titus  iii.  3-7. — "There  was  a  time  when  we,  too,  were 
senseless,  disobedient,  wandering  from  the  way,  in  bond- 
age to  manifold  lusts  and  pleasures,  living  in  envy  and 
malice,  hateful  and  hating  each  other.  But  when  our 
Saviour  God  displayed  His  kindness  and  love  to  men,  then 
indeed  He  saved  us — not  by  works  that  we  ourselves  had 
done  as  a  matter  of  righteousness,  but  in  the  way  of  His 
mercy,  by  means  of  the  laver  of  new  birth  and  the  renew- 
ing power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (John  iii.  5).  This  He  poured 
out  richly  upon  us  through  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour,  to  the 
end  that  we  might  be  justified  by  His  grace,  and  made 
heirs  in  hope  of  life  eternal." 

2  Tim.  iv.  6-8. — "For  my  life  is  a  libation  ready  for 
the  sacrifice.     It  is  time  to  break  up  my  tent  (2  Cor.  v.  1 ; 

2  Pet.  i.  14).  The  good  fight  I  have  fought  out ;  I  have 
run  the  race ;  I  have  kept  the  faith  to  the  end.  For  the 
rest,  there  is  in  store  for  me  the  crown  of  righteousness, 
which  the  Lord  will  give  me  in  the  great  day, — that  right- 
eous Judge  !  nor  to  me  alone,  but  to  all  that  have  set  their 
love  on  His  appearing." 


CHAPTER  XII. 

GENEEAL    SUKVEY. 

"  I  HAVE  fought  the  good  fight ;  I  have  fin- 
ished the  course;  I  have  kept  the  faith." 
Such  are  the  apostle's  last  words  to  the  Church 
through  Timothy  (2  Ep.  iv.  7).  Through  every 
land  from  Syria  to  Spain,  through  every  class 
of  Gentile  society  from  the  slave  to  the  em- 
peror, the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  has  pro- 
claimed his  message.  This  external  progress 
was  attended  by  a  corresponding  internal 
development.  In  his  spiritual  experience 
St.  Paul  had  penetrated  to  the  depths  of  the 
mystery  of  Christ;  while  his  inspired  logic 
and  force  of  character  had  won  for  the  gospel 
a  decisive  victory  over  Jewish  reaction,  and 
the  antagonism  of  philosophical  thought. 
The  Pauline  churches,  as  the  apostle  left 
them  at  the  close  of  his  ministry,  were  the 
result  and  the  witness  of  this  manifold  activ- 
ity. "  I  was  appointed,"  he  says,  "  herald  and 
apostle,  teacher  of  the  Gentiles  in  faith  and 
truth"  (1  Tim.  ii.  7;  2  Tim.  i.  11);  and  he 
has  made  full  proof  of  this  ministry.     "The 

227 


228  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

seal  of  my  apostleship,"  lie  could  say  to  G-en- 
tile  Christendom,  "  are  ye  in  the  Lord.  .  .  . 
In  Christ  Jesus  through  the  gospel  I  have 
begotten  you."  He  sees  his  message  accepted 
and  his  teaching  embodied  in  the  existence  of 
the  Church  throughout  the  Roman  Empire. 
The  permanence  of  the  gospel  and  its  propa- 
gation amongst  mankind  are  guaranteed.  "A 
pillar  and  ground  "  is  set  up,  on  which,  he  is 
well  assured,  "the  truth"  will  stand  fast  for- 
ever. 

Along  three  distinct  lines  we  may,  there- 
fore, trace  the  general  course  of  Paul's  apos- 
tolic work :  (1)  The  progress  of  Ms  evangelistic 
mission;  (2)  the  development  of  his  theolog- 
ical doctrine;  and  (3)  the  building  up  of  the 
Church  under  his  care. 

St.  Paul's  Woek  as  an  Evangelist. 

Before  the  apostle  settled  at  Antioch  (43 
A.D.),  he  had  preached  the  gospel  in  Damascus 
and  Jerusalem,  and  for  several  years  in  his 
native  province  of  Cilicia  (Gral.  i.  21;  comp. 
Acts  ix.  30).  But  it  was  at  Antioch  that  the 
Gentile  mission  was  fairly  commenced  (Acts 
xiii.  1-3).  Here  the  Church,  in  its  true  idea 
as  a  world-wide  community,  was  instituted. 
To  Antioch  Cypriote  and  Cyrenian  Jews  had 
"come  and  spoken  to  the  Greeks^  preaching 


GENERAL   SURVEY.  229 

the  Lord  Jesus"  (Acts  xi.  18-26);  "in  Anti- 
ocli  the  disciples  were  first  called  Christians^ 
The  new  name  signalized  the  appearance  on 
the  platform  of  history  of  the  new  commu- 
nity. Derived  from  a  Hebrew  root  {Messiali) 
translated  into  Grreek  (Christos),  and  furnished 
with  a  Latin  ending  (Christm^) — the  title  be- 
ing coined,  as  Ewald  reasonably  conjectures, 
by  the  Eoman  authorities  of  Antioch  when 
they  first  took  cognizance  of  the  disciples  of 
Jesus — it  admirably  characterized  the  Judaeo- 
Gentile  society  over  w^hich  Barnabas  and  Paul 
presided  at  Antioch;  and  the  word  quickly 
passed  into  general  and  settled  use. 

In  and  around  Antioch  St.  Paul  labored 
for  some  eight  years  (43-51  a.d.).  It  was 
there  that  fie  rose  to  the  ascendency  which 
marked  him  out  as  "  apostle  of  the  uncircum- 
cision  "  (Gral.  ii.  1-10 ;  comp.  Acts  xv.),  as  he 
had  been  already  designated  by  "  the  revela- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ"  (Gal.  i.  11-16).  There, 
at  a  later  time,  his  apostleship  was  singular- 
ly vindicated  by  the  reproof  administered  to 
Peter  for  his  Judaistic  lapse  (Gal.  ii.  11-21). 
The  church  of  Antioch  laid  its  hands  upon 
him,  "  commending  him  to  the  grace  of  God " 
for  his  wider  mission  (Acts  xiii.  1-3).  Thith- 
er he  returned  with  the  tidings  of  success 
(Acts  xiv.  26-28;  again  in  xviii.  22,  23),  re- 


230  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

garding  Antiocli,  as  we  imagine,  even  to  the 
last  as  his  headquarters  and  the  nursing- 
mother  of  Gentile  Christendom. 

From  this  centre  his  activity  proceeded  in 
ever- widening  circles.  The  first  recorded  mis- 
sionary circuit,  of  Barnabas  and  Paul,  ex- 
tended to  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor.  The 
second  tour  was  designed  to  embrace  the 
west  of  the  peninsula.  But  the  apostle's 
course  was  diverted  to  Europe;  and  Mace- 
donia and  Greece  next  heard  his  message. 
The  third  missionary  journey  completed  and 
consolidated  the  work  of  the  second.  Ephe- 
sus,  mid-way  between  Antioch  and  Corinth, 
was  occupied  for  Christ;  and  the  province 
of  Asia  was  planted  with  churches.  Mean- 
while the  Judaistic  reaction,  with  its  "  other 
gospel,"  was  repelled  after  a  violent  struggle. 
When  at  the  end  of  this  period  (58  a.d.)  the 
apostle  writes  to  Eome,  he  regards  his  mis- 
sion in  the  east  of  the  empire  as  already  ful- 
filled (ch.  XV.  19-24) ;  and  he  is  setting  his 
face  towards  Italy  and  Spain. 

The  next  stage  in  his  career  finds  him  ar- 
rived at  Eome,  but  far  otherwise  than  he 
expected, — "  an  ambassador  in  bonds  "  (Eph. 
vi.  20).  Yet  this  captivity,  which  appeared 
so  disastrous,  had  "  fallen  out  rather  to  the 
furtherance  of  the  gospel."    He  was  free  to 


GENERAL   SUEVEY.  231 

preach  to  all  in  tlie  city  who  came  to  him ; 
and  his  position  gave  him  the  means,  which 
otherwise  would  have  been  wanting,  to  reach 
the  army  and  the  imperial  court  (Phil.  i. 
12,  13,  iv.  22).  He  fulfilled,  as  we  believe, 
his  intention  of  preaching  in  Spain,  during 
the  interval  between  his  first  and  second  im- 
prisonment. The  language  of  the  Pastoral 
epistles  (2  Tim.  iv.  7,  17)  agrees  with  what 
Clement  of  Rome  tells  us  (1  Ep.  v.)  of  Paul's 
"  having  been  a  herald  both  in  the  east  and 
in  the  west,"  having  "taught  righteousness 
to  the  whole  world,  and  come  to  the  limit  of 
the  west."  When  Clement  adds  "  and  having 
witnessed  before  the  rulers,"  he  reminds  us  of 
the  apostle's  words  in  2  Tim.  iv.  17,  where  he 
speaks  of  his  "  defence  "  before  the  emperor's 
tribunal  on  his  last  and  fatal  trial  as  the  cli- 
max of  his  ministry:  "The  Lord  stood  by 
me  and  strengthened  me,  that  through  me 
the  gospel-message  might  be  fully  proclaimed, 
and  all  the  Grentiles  might  hear."  Syria  had 
heard ;  Spain  had  heard ;  and  now,  to  crown 
all,  he  had  borne  witness  before  Caesar  and 
the  majesty  of  Eome  (Acts  ix.  15,  xxiii.  11). 
It  is  a  sign  to  him  that  "  the  time  of  his  de- 
parture has  come." 

Thus,  in  one  wave  after  another,  the  gospel 
tidings  had  been  carried,  spreading  farther 


232  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

and  rising  higher  as  it  swept  through  Syria, 
Asia  Minor,  Macedonia,  Greece,  Italy,  and 
Spain.  Antioch,  Iconium,  Gralatia,  Thessa- 
lonica,  Corinth,  Ephesus,  Rome  mark  the 
steps  of  Paul's  triumphant  progress. 

The  Gkowth  of  St.  Paul's  Doctkine. 

The  distance  between  Jerusalem  and  Rome 
is  a  type  of  the  interval  that  separates  St. 
Peter's  sermon  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  from 
the  finished  doctrine  of  the  great  epistles. 
The  "  salvation  which  is  of  the  Jews "  has 
now  become  the  possession  of  mankind. 
There  was  in  all  this  a  true  development, 
an  unfolding  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  as 
the  Master  himself  had  left  it,  to  the  con- 
science and  faith  of  the  Gentile  world.  The 
reproach  of  innovation  cast  upon  Paul  by  the 
Judaists  of  his  own  time,  and  which  mod- 
ern critics  have  taken  up  again  as  though  it 
were  a  tribute  to  his  genius,  alleging  that  he 
effected  a  radical  transformation  in  the  prim- 
itive Christian  faith  and  gave  it  a  new  spirit 
and  power — that  Paul,  and  not  Jesus,  is  in 
effect  the  author  of  Christianity, — is  utterly 
false.  The  apostle  would  have  regarded  it 
with  horror.  His  greatness  is  that  of  a  ser- 
vant and  disciple.  The  seed  of  the  word  of 
Christ,  falling  upon  his  fertile   and  daring 


GENERAL   SURVEY.  233 

mind,  developed  itself  with  marvellous  poten- 
cy, and  bore  fruit  of  incomparable  richness ; 
but  it  was  the  fruit  of  no  other  seed  than 
this.  Neither  Judaism  nor  Hellenism  had 
contributed  to  it  anything  essential.  The 
apostolic  theology  existed  in  germ  and  pur- 
pose already  in  the  teaching  of  Jesus.  The 
foundation  that  Paul  laid  was  Jesus  Christ, 
and  ^^ no  other"  (1  Cor.  iii.  11);  the  gospel 
that  he  preached,  from  first  to  last,  he  "  re- 
ceived of  the  Lord,— through  revelation  of 
Jesus  Christ"  (1  Cor.  xi.  23;  Gal.  i.  12). 

This  was  St.  Paul's  absolute  conviction; 
and  it  is  confirmed  by  a  just  analysis  of  his 
writings^  and  comparison  of  their  contents 
with  the  doctrine  of  the  four  Evangehsts. 
However  far  the  apostle  advanced  in  thought 
and  in  experience,  Christ  was  still  infinitely 
beyond  him;  and  he  was  but  "following  on 
to  apprehend."  The  more  deeply  he  explored 
the  Divine  mystery,  the  more  he  was  over- 
whelmed by  its  vastness,  by  the  sense  of 
"  Christ's  unsearchable  riches."  He  was  trans- 
ported with  "  the  excellency  of  His  knowl- 
edge," and  the  greatness  of  His  love  that 
"passeth  knowledge."  With  such  an  object 
of  pursuit,  the  apostle  felt  that  his  knowledge 
could  only  be  partial,  open  to  constant  en- 
largement and  advance.     "Not  as  though  I 


234  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

liad  already  attained,"  lie  seems  to  say  at 
every  point,  "  or  were  already  perfect."  We 
cannot  read  liis  epistles  in  the  order  of  their 
composition  without  observing  this  growth 
and  expansion  of  his  doctrine.  We  find  in 
them  a  march  of  thought  no  less  signal  than 
the  visible  progress  of  his  missionary  career. 
Alike  in  theological  knowledge  and  in  spirit- 
ual attainment,  unceasingly  he  "  pressed  to- 
wards the  mark."  The  two  were  as  insepara- 
ble as  were  his  intellect  and  heart.  Both  are 
embraced  in  that  one  desire  of  his:  "that 
I  may  know  Christ,  and  the  power  of  His 
resurrection,  and  the  fellowship  of  His  suf- 
ferings." 

The  four  groups  of  the  epistles,  broadly 
considered,  present  four  successive  phases  of 
the  apostle's  teaching.  Throughout  we  find 
variety,  elasticity,  logical  development,  adap- 
tation to  changing  conditions;  and  at  the 
same  time,  an  entire  unity  of  organic  life  and 
mental  structure.  Of  his  epistles  one  may 
say,  what  he  said  to  the  greatly  differing 
members  of  the  church  of  Corinth :  "  Ye  be- 
ing many  are  one  body  in  Christ." 

I.  When  the  earliest  of  the  extant  letters 
were  written,  to  the  Thessalonians  (53  or  54 
A.D.),  St.  Paul  had  already  completed  half  his 


GENEKAL   SUEVEY.  235 

course.  His  mind  is  mature,  his  theology 
wrought  out  in  its  main  ideas  and  applica- 
tions. Whatever  new  developments  it  may 
henceforth  receive,  in  whatever  altered  forms 
he  may  afterwards  administer  the  grace  of 
God,  to  suit  the  growing  demands  of  the 
Church  and  the  shifting  assaults  of  its  ene- 
mies, the  system  of  truth  inculcated  in  these 
first  letters  is  held  fast  to  the  end.  All  that 
St.  Paul  subsequently  taught  is  contained 
there  virtually  and  by  implication. 

These  epistles,  read  along  with  his  dis- 
courses in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  exhibit 
his  teaching  in  its  missionary  aspect, — as  it 
first  came  into  contact  with  pagan  thought, 
and  in  the  form  which  it  took  in  the  minds 
of  men  newly  converted  from  heathenism. 
Two  doctrines,  we  have  seen,  are  especially 
conspicuous  at  this  epoch:  that  of  the  true 
cliaracter  of  God,  in  contrast  with  idols ;  and 
that  of  Jesus  the  Messiah  and  Son  of  God,  who 
would  quickly  return  in  glory  as  the  righteous 
judge  of  the  world  and  deliverer  of  His  faith- 
ful people  (1  Ep.  i.  9,  10,  etc.).  The  Godhead 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  is  implied,  especially  in  the 
prayers  that  are  addressed  to  Him  along  with 
the  Father  (1  Ep.  iii.  11-13 ;  2  Ep.  ii.  16,  17). 

On  two  main  facts  the  faith  of  Paul's  Thes- 
salonian  converts  rested:  "We  believe  that 


236  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Jesus  died,  and  rose  again^^  (1  Ep.  iv.  14). 
They  are  spoken  of  throughout  as  "  believers," 
or  "  those  who  believed  " ;  for  faith  is  the  root 
and  spring  of  their  life  in  the  S^oirit,  it  is  the 
reception  of  God's  word,  the  surrender  and 
union  of  the  soul  to  Christ  (see  especially 
1  Ep.  ii.  13 ;  2  Ep.  i.  10,  ii.  13). 

ChrisPs  death  was  the  means  of  salvation, 
appointed  by  God ;  it  brings  men  deliverance 
from  the  Divine  anger  merited  by  their  sins, 
a  deliverance  whose  full  fruition  they  will  en- 
joy at  their  Deliverer's  return  (1  Ep.  v.  8-10, 
i.  10 ;  2  Ep.  i.  7-12,  ii.  13,  14).  His  resurrec- 
tion raises  them  through  faith  to  a  fellowship 
with  Him  which  survives  the  grave,  and  which 
at  His  advent  will  enter  upon  its  consum- 
mated form  (1  Ep.  iv.  13-18,  v.  10).  Add  to 
this  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  su- 
preme gift  of  God  and  the  element  of  our  fel- 
lowship with  Christ,  felt  as  an  inward  life  and 
fire  in  the  spirit  of  men,  giving  strength  to 
those  who  speak  and  joy  to  those  who  suffer 
for  Christ,  sanctifying  the  body  no  less  than 
the  soul  of  the  believer  (1  Ep.  i.  5,  6,  iv.  3-8, 
V.  19,  20,  23 ;  2  Ep.  ii.  13),— and  we  have  in 
these  simple  letters  the  kernel  and  substance 
of  St.  Paul's  conception  of  Christianity.  A 
number  of  his  most  characteristic  expressions 
are  already  here :  such  as  the  trilogy  of  "  faith, 


GENERAL   SUEVEY.  237 

love,  and  hope,"  the  "  caUing  "  and  "  election  " 
of  believers  on  the  part  of  God,  the  "  grace  of 
God"  viewed  as  the  source  of  our  salvation 
in  Christ  and  of  every  personal  blessing  and 
favor,  "  the  peace  of  God "  as  the  centre  and 
sum  of  blessedness. 

The  principle  of  tlie  heliever^s  fellotvsJiip  tvitJi 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Spirit — a  fellow- 
ship in  His  life,  through  His  death — is  seen 
to  be  from  the  first  the  centre  of  Paul's  theol- 
ogy. It  is  the  keynote  of  the  melody,  heard 
through  all  its  variations,  the  fundamental 
point  to  which  the  apostle  perpetually  returns, 
and  from  which  the  entire  development  of  his 
doctrine,  whether  speculative  or  practical,  may 
be  traced.  This  truth  was  to  St.  Paul  the  life 
of  life ;  it  was  the  secret  of  the  ages,  the  spring 
of  immortality.  He  carried  its  mystery  with- 
in his  own  breast  (Gal.  i.  16,  ii.  20 ;  Col.  i.  25- 
29 ;  1  Thess.  v.  10). 

In  1  and  2  Thessalonians  and  1  Corinthians, 
written  when  it  was  not  yet  revealed  to  the 
apostle  that  he  must  die  before  the  Lord's 
return,  the  last  things  of  Christian  teaching 
loom  impressively  upon  us.  From  the  begin- 
ning we  look  straight  on  to  the  end ;  no  in- 
tervening object  detains  the  eye.  The  arena 
of  the  Church's  long  conflict  and  discipline  is 
not  yet  opened.     Earthly  relations,  duties  of 


238  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

family  and  civil  life,  are  of  transient  impor- 
tance (1  Cor.  vii.  29-31).  Tlie  Lord's  return 
in  glory,  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  and  the 
rapture  of  the  living  saints,  with  the  reve- 
lation of  the  Lawless  One  and  the  manifesta- 
tion of  his  Satanic  power  preceding  Christ's 
descent  from  heaven, — these  are  the  things 
which  for  the  time  possess  the  thoughts  of 
the  Church,  to  a  degree  to  which  they  have 
never  done  at  any  subsequent  period. 

II.  The  bent  of  the  apostle's  teaching  in  the 
second  group  of  letters  is  determined  by  the 
outbreak  of  the  Judaistic  controversy.  Truths 
which  he  had  hitherto  delivered  in  simple 
didactic  form,  are  in  Galatians  and  Eomans 
expounded  and  demonstrated  in  their  full 
theological  import.  The  doctrines  of  Grace 
are  unfolded  and  defined.  Held,  as  it  were, 
in  solution  in  Paul's  previous  teaching  and 
that  of  the  other  apostles,  the  theology  of  the 
cross  is  precipitated  by  the  shock  of  this 
contention  and  crystallized  into  its  dogmatic 
form.  The  apostle's  conceptions  of  the  nature 
and  extent  of  human  sin,  of  the  meaning  of 
the  death  of  Christ  and  its  relation  to  God's 
law  and  to  His  love,  of  the  sole  ef&cacy  of 
faith  in  man's  salvation,  of  the  Divine  sonship 
of  believers,  of  his  personal  vocation  as  apostle 


GENEKAL   SURVEY.  239 

to  the  Gentiles,  of  the  position  and  destiny  of 
national  Israel, — these  are  the  subjects  that 
now  occupy  the  field  of  view.  The  atonement 
of  the  cross  and  justification  hy  faith  form,  the 
centre  round  which  everything  moves. 

These  truths  have  an  underlying  experi- 
mental basis  in  the  union  of  the  soul  with 
Christ  crucified  and  risen  (Rom.  vi.  4;  Gral.  ii. 
20 ;  2  Cor.  v.  14,  15).  This  governing  idea  is 
now  expanded  and  applied  in  all  directions : 
negatively,  as  it  involves  our  deliverance  from 
the  law  of  sin  and  death,  as  it  puts  an  end  to 
all  legal  justification,  and  condemns  every  at- 
tempt to  establish  one's  own  righteousness; 
and  positively,  as  it  brings  with  it  full  devo- 
tion to  God's  service,  conformity  to  the  image 
of  His  Son,  possession  of  His  Spirit,  and  the 
attainment  by  man,  both  in  spirit  and  body, 
of  the  heritage  of  life  eternal. 

The  kingdom  of  grace  is  thus  extended  over 
the  whole  domain  of  life.  It  embraces  all  the 
nations  and  all  the  ages  of  time,  from  Adam 
downwards ;  it  dominates  all  the  passions  of 
the  heart,  and  "  captivates  every  thought  unto 
the  obedience  of  Christ."  It  triumphs  over 
evil  in  every  field  of  conflict,  so  that  "  where 
sin  multiplied,  grace  superabounded ;  and  as 
sin  reigned  in  death,  so  grace  reigns  through 
righteousness  unto  life  eternal  through  Jesus 


240  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

Christ  our  Lord"  (Rom.  v.  20,  21).  "To  God 
be  thanks,"  well  may  the  apostle  say,  "  who 
always  leadeth  us  in  triumph  in  the  Christ, 
and  manifests  in  us  the  savor  of  His  knowl- 
edge" (2  Cor.  ii.  14).  The  advance  of  the 
evangelical  principle  in  these  epistles,  its  log- 
ical and  experimental  vindication,  its  mastery 
of  the  empire  of  thought  and  conscience,  are 
even  more  triumphant  than  was  its  visible 
progress  along  the  Mediterranean  shores. 

The  letters  to  the  Galatians  and  Eomans 
have  established  once  for  all  the  sovereignty 
of  grace  in  religion.  Side  by  side  with  these 
stand  the  two  letters  to  the  Corinthians,  where 
the  new  spirit  of  evangelical  life  comes  into 
conflict  with  manifold  forms  of  social  evil, 
with  the  impurities,  disorders,  and  rivalries 
infesting  a  church  not  sufficiently  weaned 
from  heathenism,  whose  members  "are  yet 
carnal,  and  walk  as  men."  At  Corinth  the 
combined  influence  of  the  Judaistic  agitation 
and  of  vicious  pagan  antecedents  and  sur- 
roundings threatened  a  complete  destruction 
of  the  work  of  grace.  These  influences  the 
apostle  combats  with  one  single  weapon :  all 
the  practical  difficulties  of  the  Corinthian 
church  he  deals  with  upon  one  principle — that 
of  the  Christian's  living  union  with  Christ. 
"  Ye  were  called,"  liQ  writes,  "  to  the  fellow- 


GENERAL   SURVEY.  241 

ship  of  God's  Son,  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord. 
.  .  .  What  concord  has  Christ  with  Behal  ? 
.  .  .  You  cannot  drink  of  the  cup  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  cup  of  demons !  .  .  .  Know  you  not 
that  your  bodies  are  limbs  of  Christ — a  temple 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  that  dwells  in  you!  .  .  . 
Is  the  Christ  divided !  .  .  .  All  the  members 
of  the  body,  being  many,  are  one  body;  so 
also  is  the  Christ."  Similarly  he  declares  to 
the  Galatians :  ''  In  Christ  there  is  neither  cir- 
cumcision nor  uncircumcision.  .  .  .  You  were 
called  for  liberty;  but  by  love  be  slaves  to 
one  another."  We  see  already  that  the  Paul- 
ine conception  of  fellowship  with  Christ  is 
destined  to  have  momentous  and  far-reaching 
ethical  consequences.  By  regenerating  the 
individual  heart  it  wiU  transform  the  face  of 
society. 

HI.  The  letters  of  the  third  group  serve  to 
carry  out  this  root  idea  of  life  in  Christ,  in 
the  direction  we  have  just  intimated.  It  is 
not  the  individual  man  alone  who  is  in  spirit 
and  body  a  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  but 
"ye  are  builded  together  for  a  habitation  of 
God  in  the  Spirit"  (Eph.  ii.  22).  The  apostle 
speaks  throughout  "  with  regard,  to  Christ  and 
the  Chiirch.^^  The  creation  in  Christ  of  a  new 
humanity,  in  which  Jew  and  Gentile  coalesce 


242  THE  EPISTLES    OF   PAUL. 

and  are  reconciled  to  each  other  as  to  God 
(Eph.  ii.  15-18),  the  "  gathering  of  all  things 
into  one  in  Him "  (Eph.  i.  10),  "  the  purpose 
of  the  ages  "  with  its  "  breadth  and  length,"  its 
"  depth  and  height,"  embracing  all  men  and 
all  times,  nay,  all  worlds — these  are  the  objects 
of  Paul's  sublime  prison  meditations. 

In  seeking  a  basis  for  the  vast  construction 
into  which  the  Church  has  grown  before  his 
eyes,  and  in  tracing  out  the  scope  of  God's 
purposes  towards  mankind,  Paul's  mind  over- 
leaps the  bounds  of  history  and  time.  With 
its  centre  in  Christ  dwelling  within  the  heart, 
his  theology  widens  to  embrace  the  entire 
created  universe.  The  mystery  of  the  gospel 
lay  hidden  in  the  world's  foundation.  The 
blood  of  the  cross  extends  its  reconciling  vir- 
tue to  "  the  things  in  the  heavens  "  along  with 
"those  upon  the  earth"  (Col.  i.  20).  Creation 
and  redemption  are  parts  of  one  design,  with 
the  Lord  Christ  supreme  in  both  (Col.  i.  14- 
20;  Eph.  i.  22,  23).  The  angelic  powers  are 
His  subordinates  and  scholars,  learning  God's 
wisdom  from  the  Church  (Eph.  iii.  10 ;  Col.  ii. 
10,  15).  On  the  other  side  are  ranged  the 
hosts  of  Satan,  ruling  in  the  heathen  world, 
against  whom  believers  contend  armed  with 
"the  panoply  of  God"  (Eph.  ii.  2;  vi.  10-12). 
Thus  the  Christian   system   attains  its  full 


GENERAL   SUEYEY.  243 

breadth  and  grandeur.  St.  Paul's  theory  com- 
prehends the  whole  sum  of  things,  and  ranges 
through  eternity.  "In  Christ  dwells  all  the 
fulness  of  the  Godhead,  bodily." 

With  the  change  of  subject  in  the  letters  of 
the  third  group,  we  find  a  change  in  the  man- 
ner and  attitude  of  the  writer.  Colossians  and 
Ephesians  are  transcendental  and  dogmatic, 
while  Galatians  and  Romans  are  psychological 
and  historical  in  their  cast  of  thought.  In 
the  latter  epistles  we  feel  the  force  of  Paul's 
logic;  in  the  former  we  admire  the  breadth 
of  his  philosophy.  There  he  sounds  all  the 
depths  of  the  heart ;  here  he  soars  to  the  far- 
thest bounds  of  human  thought. 

But  the  apostle  never  loses  himself  in  specu- 
lation. From  these  celestial  heights  he  de- 
scends with  new  vigor  and  insight  to  the  level 
of  ordinary  life.  Col.  iii.  and  Eph.  iv.-vi.  give 
a  fuller  representation  of  practical  religion 
than  any  of  the  earlier  epistles.  The  com- 
pleted doctrine  of  Christ's  Lordship  and  of 
the  nature  and  destiny  of  the  Church,  the 
new  humanity  that  He  has  called  into  birth, 
furnish  the  basis  for  a  new  Christian  ethics^ 
whose  import  has  not  even  yet  been  ade- 
quately realized.  The  relations  of  family  and 
social  life  belong  to  the  Divine  order,  founded 
from  eternity  in  Christ;  they  are  under  his 


244  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

guardiansliip,  and  have  their  counterpart  and 
ideal  in  His  spiritual  kingdom.  Thus  the 
secular  becomes  sacred,  the  natural  is  affili- 
ated to  the  supernatural  (Col.  iii.  17).  The 
light  of  heaven  shines  upon  our  daily  walk 
on  earth.  The  love  of  Christ  sheds  its  influ- 
ence over  the  world's  strife  and  toil,  dispels  its 
dreariness,  transforms  its  selfishness,  cleanses 
its  impurity,  delivers  it  from  folly  and  vanity, 
and  makes  it  a  garden  of  the  Lord  bringing 
forth  "the  fruit  of  the  light  in  all  goodness 
and  righteousness  and  truth  "  (Eph.  v.  9).  No- 
where is  tlie  Christian  temjjer  in  its  commingled 
elements  and  its  effect  on  human  intercourse 
so  perfectly  described  as  in  certain  passages 
in  these  epistles.  "  Whatsoever  things  are 
true,  honorable,  just,  pure,  lovely,  gracious," 
those  who  have  received  Christ  and  His  new 
life  will  "  think  of  "  and  practice  in  the  world ; 
so  "the  Grod  of  peace  shall  be  with"  them 
(Phil.  iv.  8,  9). 

The  epistle  to  the  Philippians  holds  a  singu- 
lar place  in  this  connection,  serving  incident- 
ally to  combine  the  characteristic  points  in 
the  teaching  of  each  of  the  three  previous 
groups,  and,  in  a  certain  sense,  summing  up 
the  doctrinal  development  of  the  letters  which 
have  preceded  it :  comp.  chap.  iii.  20,  21  with 
1  Thess.  i.  10,  1  Cor.  xv.  50-57;  chap.  iii.  3-10 


GENERAL   SURVEY.  245 

with  Gral.  ii.  14-21 ;  and  cliap.  ii.  5-11  with  Col. 
i.  15-22.  The  last  passage  gives  to  Paul's 
doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ  its  most  fin- 
ished and  sublime  expression,  and  sets  it  as 
the  keystone  in  the  arch  of  his  theology. 

"We  have  found  in  the  Alexandrine  Jewish 
theology,  through  which  Greek  philosophy 
first  came  into  contact  with  the  gospel,  the 
external  cause  which  turned  St.  Paul's  mind 
in  the  direction  it  takes  in  the  epistle  to  the 
Colossians.  At  the  same  time  the  new  doctrine 
of  the  epistles  of  this  period  is  a  genuine  out- 
growth of  his  earlier  teaching.  It  is  due  to 
the  inevitable  logic  of  his  thought,  guided  by 
the  Spirit  of  God,  and  compelled  to  make 
Christ  "  all  things  and  in  all." 

IV.  The  Pauline  theology  has  now  attained 
its  full  stature.  As  an  organic  structure  it  is 
complete.  "All  things  are  put  beneath  the 
feet "  of  Christ ;  He  is  filled  with  "  all  the  ful- 
ness of  God,"  and  given  in  His  fulness  to  the 
Church,  a  bride  which  shall  be  worthy  of  her 
Lord  (Eph.  i.  22,  23,  v.  25,  26).  Paul's  prin- 
ciple of  the  believer's  union  with  Christ  has 
expanded  and  built  up  itself,  till  it  fills  the 
world  and  rises  to  heaven  and  eternity.  What 
more  is  there  left  for  him  to  say?  It  remains 
that  he  should  set  his  final  seal  upon  the  teach- 


246  THE   EPISTLES    OF   PAUL. 

ing  of  his  life,  and  commit  the  great  charge 
to  the  times  to  come.  And  this  is  what  the 
Pastoral  epistles  do. 

They  rehearse  his  doctrines  here  and  there, 
in  balanced  and  finished  sentences.  They  ap- 
ply them  in  their  collective  force  to  the  prac- 
tice of  religion  and  right  behavior  in  the 
Church.  They  dwell  at  length  on  the  char- 
acter that  befits  her  ministers,  and  on  the 
opposite  qualities  that  marked  the  false  teach- 
ers aheady  beginning  to  infest  her  commun- 
ion. They  insist  on  religious  character  as  the 
Church's  vital  need,  her  seal  and  security 
in  perilous  times.  Piety  and  virtue  are  the 
flower  and  fruitage  of  the  life  hid  with  Christ 
in  Grod ;  and  it  is  on  the  safeguarding  of  these 
that  St.  Paul's  last  thoughts  are  spent.  He 
has  planted  and  tended  the  garden  of  the 
Lord :  he  must  fence  it  from  ravenous  beasts. 
In  "  the  mystery  of  godliness  "  he  sums  up  all 
the  glorious  revelations  of  Christ  he  had  re- 
ceived (1  Tim.  iii.  16) ;  and  the  "  end  of  the 
charge  "  of  his  ministry  is  "  love,  out  of  a  pure 
heart  and  a  good  conscience  and  faith  un- 
feigned" (1  Tim.  i.  5).  Such  are  the  things 
which  those  who  follow  him  must  "  teach  and 
exhort,"  guarding  evermore  the  great  "  de- 
posit "  which  Christ  Jesus  in  His  unspeakable 


GENEKAL   SUKVEY.  247 

grace  committed  first  to  himself,  and  which 
he  had  kept  faithfully  to  the  end. 

The  four  groups  of  epistles  we  may  now 
characterize,  from  the  most  general  point  of 
view,  as  being  respectively,  in  their  relation 
to  the  apostle's  ministry :  missionary ,  evangel- 
ical, edificatory,  valedictory ;  in  manner,  didac- 
tic, argumentative,  contemplative,  hortatory ;  in 
matter,  eschatological,  soteriological,  Christo- 
logical,  ecclesiastical. 

The  GrRowTH  of  the  Church. 

Church  life  and  administration  occupied 
St.  Paul's  mind  increasingly  as  time  went  on 
and  his  ministry  drew  to  its  close.  The  let- 
ters to  Timothy  and  Titus  are  in  fact  ecclesi- 
astical epistles.  They  deal  with  the  practical 
affairs  of  the  Church,  as  the  Ephesian  epistle 
sets  forth  its  principles  and  spiritual  basis. 
The  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  gives  us 
a  vivid  picture  of  the  manifold  elements  that 
entered  into  the  life  of  a  Pauline  church. 
Other  letters  have  thrown  additional  light 
on  the  subject.  And  yet,  ample  as  the  ma- 
terial seems  to  be,  it  is  extremely  difficult 
to  delineate  the  features  of  primitive  church 
organization,  and  to  trace  the  steps  by  which 
it  was  developed  in  the  apostolic  age. 


248  THE   EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

St.  Paul's  earliest  letters  are  written  "to 
the  assembly  of  Thessalonians  in  God  the 
Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  Here 
the  Church  seems  to  present  a  congregational 
aspect.  It  is  constituted  by  the  local  assem- 
bly of  believers,  who  are  distinguished  by 
their  faith  in  "  God  the  Father  and  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ "  from  heathen  and  Jewish  com- 
munities around  them.  When  he  writes  to 
"  the  Church  of  God  that  is  at  Corinth,  with 
all  the  saints  which  are  in  all  Achaia,"  to  "  all 
that  are  in  Rome,  beloved  of  God,"  or  "to 
the  saints  and  faithful  brethren  in  Colossse," 
such  expressions  indicate  a  detachment  of 
the  Church  from  its  local  habitat ;  the  transi- 
tion is  effected  from  the  congregational  to  the 
connectional,  or  collective  idea  of  its  consti- 
tution. When,  finally,  in  the  epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  he  speaks  of  "  each  several  build- 
ing fitly  framed  together  growing  into  a  holy 
temple  in  the  Lord"  (ch.  ii.  21,  R.V.),  of  "the 
body  of  Christ,"  to  which  God  gave  Him  for 
head  who  is  His  own  fulness  (ch.  i.  22,  23), 
in  which  there  is  to  be  "  glory  to  God  unto 
all  generations  forever  and  ever"  (ch.  iii.  21), 
we  have  attained  to  the  full  conception  of 
the  Church  catholic  and  oecumenical. 

As  to  government  and  the  distribution  of 
church  office,  the  references  of  earlier  epistles 


GENEEAL   SURVEY.  249 

are  slight  and  not  easy  of  explanation.    It 
seems  likely  that  the  apostle  did  not  impose 
a  uniform  plan  upon  all  his  churches.     The 
Thessalonians  had  "  presidents," — "  those  who 
labor  among  you,  and  are.  over  you  in  the 
Lord,  and  admonish  you"  (1  Ep.  v.  12),  whom 
they  are  to  treat  with  affection  and  respect. 
The  same  expression  is  applied  to  "  the  elders 
who  rule  (who  preside)  well "  in  1  Tim.  v.  17 
(similarly  in  ch.  iii.  5).     "We  may  safely  iden- 
tify the  Thessalonian  presiding  officers  with 
the  order  of  "  elders  "  whom  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas "  ordained  in  every  city "  in  completing 
the  work  of  their  first  mission  in  Asia  Minor 
(Acts  xiv.  23 ;  comp.  Tit.  i.  5).     Such  "  elders  " 
Paul,  we  may  suppose,  was  accustomed  to 
appoint  in  each  new  church,  to  preside  at  its 
meetings  and  take  the  spiritual  and  adminis- 
trative direction  of  its  affairs.     At  the  same 
time,  it  is  not  the  officers  specifically,  but  tlie 
Church  at  large,  which  the  apostle  addresses 
in  regard  to  the  case  of  discipline  that  arose 
at  Thessalonica ;  and  it  is  by  the  vote  and 
action  of  the  whole  body  that  he  requires  the 
necessary  censure  to  be  inflicted  (2  Ep.  iii. 
6-15 ;  comp.  1  Ep.  v.  14,  15). 

In  1  Corinthians  v.  this  disciplinary  action 
and  responsibility  of  the  body  of  the  church 
are  conspicuously  evident.      Peremptory  as 


250  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

liis  own  judgment  is  in  tlie  case  of  the  in- 
cestuous person,  the  assembly  must  concur 
in  the  sentence  and  itself  expel  the  culprit. 
"Already,"  he  writes,  "  as  though  I  were  pres- 
ent, I  have  judged  him  that  hath  so  done, 
ivlien  you  are  gatliered  together  and  my  spirit^ 
with  the  power  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to 
deliver  such  an  one  unto  Satan.  .  .  .  Put 
away  the  wicked  man  from  among  your- 
selves" (1  Cor.  V.  3-5,  13).  Neither  1  nor 
2  Corinthians  makes  any  reference  to  church 
officers,  unless  such  reference  be  found  in 
1  Cor.  xvi.  15,  16 ;  but  this  passage  seems  to 
express  the  apostle's  wish  that  the  Corinthi- 
ans should  put  themselves  in  line  with  other 
churches  ("  that  ye  also  may  be  in  subjection 
to  such"),  implying  that  "elders"  had  not 
been  previously  recognized.  It  is  difficult  to 
understand  how  the  scenes  of  disorder  indi- 
cated in  1  Ep.  xiv.  could  have  existed  under 
regular  presidency;  in  correcting  this  disor- 
der Paul  appeals  to  the  body  of  the  church, 
without  alluding  to  any  authority  except  his 
own.  In  chap.  xi.  34  there  may  lie  an  inten- 
tion, not  hitherto  fulfilled,  to  organize  this 
church  like  others.  It  is  significant  that  in 
chap.  xii.  28  he  enumerates  amongst  the 
things  "God  ordained  in  the  church"  helps 
and  governments — corresponding  to  the  offices 


GENERAL   SURVEY.  251 

of  deacon  and  Usliop  (or  elder)^  as  "we  find 
them  in  Phil.  i.  1,  and  the  Pastoral  epistles ; 
but  these  functions  existed  at  Corinth  in  idea 
rather  than  in  fact.  This  church  exhibits 
the  characteristic  traits  of  a  Greek  democ- 
racy, its  abundance  of  talent,  its  vivacity  and 
public  spirit,  with  its  fatal  levity,  turbulence, 
and  factiousness. 

In  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians  we  find  the 
first  distinct  reference  to  the  "  teachers,"  or 
"  instructors  "  (same  word  as  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  19 ; 
Rom.  ii.  18 ;  Luke  i.  4 :  kindred  to  catechists), 
who  played  so  important  a  part  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  early  Church.  At  Corinth 
powers  of  "teaching"  and  "prophecy"  seem 
to  have  been  diffused  through  the  church, 
and  not  committed  to  any  specially  chosen 
individuals  (1  Ep.  xiv.  26-31).  Up  to  the 
time  of  1  Tim.  v.  17  this  office  was  distinct 
from  that  of  the  "elders":  "ruling"  and 
"teaching"  might,  or  might  not,  belong  to 
one  and  the  same  person.  In  organizing  the 
young  churches  of  Crete,  St.  Paul  desires  that 
these  functions  should  be  combined  (Tit.  i. 
5-9).  In  Eph.  iv.  11  "pastors  and  teachers" 
are  associated,  but  not  necessarily  identified. 

Through  the  whole  apostolic  age  there  were 
"  prophets,"  men  who  by  their  gift  of  inspira- 
tion— the  highest  gift  of  all  (1  Cor.  xiv.  39) — 


252  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

were  associated  with  the  apostles  as  founders 
and  spiritual  leaders  of  the  Church  (1  Cor.  xii. 
28;  Eph.  ii.  20,  iii.  5,  etc.).  They  had,  as 
prophets,  no  administrative  charge;  and  not 
unfrequently  travelled  from  one  community 
to  another  (Acts  xi.  27,  xv.  22,  32,  xxi.  10), 
belonging  to  the  Church  at  large  rather  than 
to  the  local  society.  Other  miraculous  gifts — 
of  "  healing,"  and  of  "  tongues  " — were  greatly 
valued,  but  stood  in  no  particular  relation  to 
church  office.  The  several  functions  we  have 
enumerated  are  brought  together  as  "differ- 
ing gifts  of  grace "  in  Eom.  xii.  6-8,  but  in 
general  terms,  such  as  scarcely  allow  us  to 
think  of  them  as  being  at  this  time  distrib- 
uted upon  a  fixed  and  uniform  plan  of  church 
organization. 

In  Eph.  iv.  11  there  is  placed  next  to  the 
"prophets"  amongst  Christ's  gifts  to  His 
Church,  an  order  of  "  evangelists,"  or  mes- 
sengers of  the  gospel ;  comp.  the  instance  of 
"Philip  the  evangehst"  (Acts  vi.  5,  viii., 
xxi.  8),  and  Timothy  (2  Ep.  iv.  5).  At  an 
earlier  time  apostle,  in  its  wider  sense,  had 
served  this  purpose,  being  a  general  designa- 
tion for  Si  missionary  preacher  (1  Thess.  ii.  6,  in- 
cluding Silas  and  Timothy ;  Acts  xiv.  14,  Bar- 
nabas and  Paul ;  etc.).  The  apostles,  prophets, 
and  evangelists  belonged  to  the  Church  gen- 


GENEKAL   SURVEY.  253 

erally,  while  the  "  pastors  and  teachers  "  nat- 
urally held  a  local  charge.  From  Acts  xx.  28 
(comp.  1  Peter  ii.  25),  it  is  clear  that  pastor 
and  bishop  (overseer)  were  equivalent  in  St. 
Paul's  phraseology. 

In  Paul's  address  at  Miletus  the  "  bishop " 
first  makes  his  appearance.  Not  without  de- 
sign did  the  apostle  introduce  this  word  in 
place  of  "  elder."  The  latter  was  ambiguous, 
being  a  title  of  Jewish  office;  and  it  did 
not  sufficiently  indicate  the  duty  that  de- 
volved on  shepherds  of  Christ's  flock.  Along 
with  the  "  bishop  "  the  "  deacon  "  comes  into 
view  in  the  Pauline  churches  shortly  after 
this  (Phil.  i.  1;  1  Tim.  iii.  8-13).  As  the 
Church  grew  and  its  charitable  cares  multi- 
plied, the  presbyter-bishops  required  assist- 
ance in  this  work ;  and  the  example  of  Jeru- 
salem supplied  a  precedent  (Acts  vi.),  which 
St.  Paul  would  be  glad  to  follow.  "When  in 
the  address  of  his  letter  to  the  Philippians  he 
formally  distinguishes  the  "  bishops  and  dea- 
cons" from  the  body  of  the  church,  it  is 
manifest  that  church  office  is  put  upon  a 
regular  and  permanent  footing,  and  the  dis- 
tinction of  clergy  and  laity,  ministers  and 
people,  is  definitely  established. 

The  Pastoral  epistles  add  nothing  really 
new  to  this  simple  outline  of  church  admin- 


254  THE   EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

istration;  but  they  serve  to  fill  in  its  de- 
tails. We  gather  from  them  that  ''  laying  on 
of  hands "  was  the  mode  of  appointment  to 
office  and  special  vocation  in  the  Church 
(1  Tim.  V.  22,  iv.  14 ;  2  Tim.  i.  6 ;  comp.  Acts 
xiii.  3).  In  Timothy's  case  "the  presbytery" 
of  Lystra  (or  Derbe?)  shared  with  St.  Paul 
in  this  function.  The  "elders"  are  subject 
to  discipline;  and  Timothy  has  to  examine 
charges  that  may  be  brought  against  some 
of  them  at  Ephesus,  acting  in  this  as  the 
apostle's  delegate  (1  Tim.  v.  19-21;  comp. 
Tit.  i.  5).  The  power  to  ordain  and  the 
power  to  suspend  from  office  naturally  go 
together.  The  directions  of  1  Tim.  iii.  1-13 
imply  that  Timothy,  in  the  choice  of  elders 
and  deacons,  would  act  in  concurrence  with 
the  judgment  of  the  church ;  they  lay  down 
the  qualifications  necessary  in  persons  elected, 
but  do  not  specify  who  the  electors  are. 
This  would  be  understood  of  itself.  The  self- 
governing  power  which  we  found  the  Thes- 
salonian  and  Corinthian  churches  to  have  a 
few  years  before,  cannot  have  been  wanting 
in  Ephesus.  The  local  community  had  a 
principal  voice  in  choosing  its  officers ;  Tim- 
othy's part  would  be  that  of  advising  and 
approving,  and  finally  of  presiding  in  the  or- 
dination of  the  elected. 


GENEEAL   SURVEY.  255 

The  care  of  tvidotvs  had  now  become  an 
important  part  of  church  business  (1  Tim.  v. 
3-16;  comp.  Acts  vi.).  Provision  was  also 
made  for  the  rearing  of  orphans,  and  the  en- 
tertainment of  strangers ;  so  we  gather  from 

1  Tim.  V.  10  (comp.  Heb.  xiii.  2).  These  and 
similar  works  of  charity,  along  with  the  pro- 
vision made  in  cases  of  necessity  for  the  tem- 
poral wants  of  the  ministry  (1  Tim.  v.  17,  18 ; 

2  Tim.  ii.  4,  6 ;  comp.  1  Cor.  ix.  6-18,  etc.),  im- 
ply the  existence  of  church  funds  and  exact 
financial  arrangements.  Considerable  sums 
of  money  passed  through  the  hands  of  the 
local  bishops  and  deacons.  Hence  it  is  speci- 
fied, in  regard  to  both  orders,  that  they  must 
be  "free  from  the  love  of  money"  (1  Tim.  iii. 
3,  8;  Tit.  i.  7,  8). 

The  stress  of  St.  Paul's  valedictory  charge 
lies  upon  the  office  of  teaching  and  preaching 
in  the  Church.  "  Preach  the  word  " :  this  is 
his  last  injunction  urged  upon  Timothy  with 
awful  solemnity  (2  Tim.  iv.  1-8).  The  word 
of  Grod  is  "the  Spirit's  sword,"  the  great 
weapon  of  Christian  warfare.  By  it  error 
is  to  be  combated  and  sin  rebuked ;  by  it  the 
Church  is  nourished  in  godliness,  and  souls 
are  won  for  God.  With  St.  Paul's  departure, 
fidelity  in  this  work  becomes  more  than  ever 
imperative  upon  his  successors  (2  Tim.  iv.  6) ; 


256  THE  EPISTLES   OF   PAUL. 

and  it  devolves  on  them  to  commit  this  same 
charge  to  faithful  and  competent  men  (ch.ii.2). 
Here,  indeed,  there  is  an  apostolical  succes- 
sion— in  the  transmission  of  the  gospel  mes- 
sage, in  the  heritage  of  "  the  Spirit  of  power 
and  love  and  discipline"  (ch.  i.  7).  But  it 
is  a  succession  that  has  not  flowed  in  the 
channel  of  ecclesiastical  prescription.  Of  this 
grace  the  Spirit  still "  dispenses  to  every  man," 
and  to  every  community,  "severally  as  He 
will." 

No  word  is  said  anywhere  in  St.  Paul's  let- 
ters that  connects  the  powers  of  the  minis- 
try specifically  with  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments:  in  1  Cor.  i.  17  he  protests  for 
himseK,  "  Christ  sent  me  not  to  baptize,  but 
to  preach  the  gospel."  It  is  evident,  none 
the  less,  that  the  rites  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper  were  everywhere  "received 
from  the  Lord "  as  the  most  cherished  privi- 
leges of  faith,  emblems  of  the  life  of  fellow- 
ship with  Christ  in  its  beginning  and  contin- 
uance, the  visible  seal  of  its  hidden  realities 
and  pledge  of  its  future  manifestation  (Rom. 
vi.  1-11;  1  Cor.  x.  16-22,  xi.  23-26,  etc.). 
But  it  is  the  "  word "  that  gives  efficacy  to 
the  outward  ordinance  (Eph.  v.  26). 

As  to  the  77iode  of  public  worship  and  sac- 
ramental observance,  and  as  to  methods  of 


GENEKAL   SURVEY.  257 

cliurcli  government  and  administration,  there 
is  little  in  the  epistles  to  guide  ns.  The 
mind  of  St.  Paul  was  occupied  with  other 
things.  Such  forms  as  then  existed  he  does 
not  seem  to  have  prescribed  by  way  of  legis- 
lative enactment  and  as  matters  of  fixed  rule, 
but  rather  to  have  allowed  them  to  form 
themselves  out  of  existing  material  and  as 
circumstances  required,  himseK  guiding  and 
correcting  the  process  as  it  went  on.  The 
future  was  left  unfettered.  The  life  of  the 
Spirit  in  the  Church  remained  free  to  fashion 
its  outward  dress,  according  to  its  own  needs 
and  impulses  as  a  growing  spiritual  organism. 
Mosaism  had  provided  a  complete  church 
polity,  finished  and  rigid  in  every  detail; 
Christ  and  His  apostles  acted  otherwise.  That 
there  should  be  the  two  sacraments,  that 
there  should  be  pastors  and  teachers,  rule 
and  discipline,  mutual  edification  and  subor- 
dination, that  a  thorough  organization  of  the 
Church's  powers  is  necessary  for  the  service 
of  Christ  and  the  work  of  the  world's  salva- 
tion, all  this  is  abundantly  evident;  but  for 
the  concrete  application  of  these  principles 
and  their  embodiment  in  positive  institutions 
the  living  Church,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  is  responsible.  Let  the  truth  of 
the  gospel,  let  the  spirit  and  character  of  the 


258  ■  THE  EPISTLES   OF  PAUL. 

Christian  life  be  maintained,  and  these  ex- 
ternal matters  will  shape  themselves  aright. 
Though  "diversities  of  gifts,  ministrations, 
workings,  the  same  Spirit,  the  same  Lord, 
the  same  Grod  worketh  all  things  in  all." 

Such  is  the  conclusion  that  we  draw  from 
St.  Paul's  church  policy,  so  far  as  it  is  mani- 
fest in  the  epistles,  looking  both  at  what  they 
say  and  what  they  leave  unsaid.  Forms  of 
ritual  and  forms  of  government  are  gradually 
transmuted,  under  the  changing  conditions  of 
life ;  they  change  no  less  inevitably  where  the 
change  is  disguised,  in  churches  which  hold 
strictly  to  traditional  and  fixed  rubrics.  But 
"  there  abide th  faith,  hope,  love — these  three  " ; 
and  where  these  are,  there  is  the  Spirit  of  the 
Father  and  of  Christ,  Such  a  Church,  one 
yet  manifold,  one  temple  of  many  buildings, 
the  apostle  Paul  left  behind  him  spread  from 
Syria  to  Spain,  witnessing  everywhere  that 
"  grace  of  Grod  which  appeared,  bringing  sal- 
vation to  all  men.''  This  living  Church,  of 
the  living  God,  was  the  grand  creation  of  the 
apostolic  ministry.  It  was  the  counterpart 
and  interpretation  of  the  Pauline  doctrine: 
"Built  upon  the  foundation  of  the  apostles 
and  prophets,  Christ  Jesus  Himself  being  the 
chief  corner-stone." 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

(Appendix.) 

the  epistle  to  the  hebkews. 

In  the  early  Greek  manuscrii^ts  of  the  New 
Testament  St.  Paul's  epistles  form  a  distinct 
volume,  entitled  The  Apostle.  Within  this 
volume  the  fourteen  letters  are  named  from 
the  churches  or  individuals  to  whom  they 
were  addressed:  To  the  Galatians,  To  Phile- 
mon, and  so  on.  Similarly  this  epistle  is  en- 
titled To  the  Hehreivs.  In  the  oldest  copies  it 
stands  tenth  in  order,  coming  last  of  those 
addressed  to  churches.  There  is  evidence 
that  in  some  previous  editions  it  had  occupied 
a  more  prominent  place,  standing  fifth  (fol- 
lowing Galatians),  or  even  fourth  (following 
2  Corinthians),  and  so  last  amongst  the  larger 
epistles.  When,  after  long  hesitation,  the 
Western  Church  in  the  fifth  century  admitted 
Hebrews  into  its  New  Testament  canon,  it 
was  set  last  of  all,  being  attached  as  a  kind  of 
appendix  to  the  other  thirteen ;  and  we  have 
received   it   in   that   position.     The   Syrian 

259 


260  APPENDIX. 

Cliurch,  in  its  ancient  version,  also  sets  this 
epistle  last  of  the  fourteen.  Luther,  in  the 
German  Bible,  separated  it  from  the  Pauline 
letters,  and  placed  it  after  those  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  John. 

In  regard  to  the  place  of  this  epistle  in  the 
New  Testament  scriptures.  East  and  West 
were  at  first  divided.  The  scholars  of  the 
East,  especially  of  Alexandria,  recognized  its 
inspiration,  and  from  this  inferred  its  apos- 
tolic origin ;  the  scholars  of  the  West  denied 
its  apostolic  origin,  and  therefore  its  inspira- 
tion and  canonicity.  But,  as  Bishop  West- 
cott  puts  it :  "  The  spiritual  insight  of  the 
East  can  be  joined  with  the  historical  witness 
of  the  West.  And  if  we  hold  that  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Spirit  makes  itself  felt  through 
the  consciousness  of  the  Christian  society,  no 
book  of  the  Bible  is  more  completely  recog- 
nized by  universal  consent  as  giving  a  Divine 
view  of  the  gospel,  full  of  lessons  for  all  time, 
than  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews." 

Destination  of  the  Epistle. 

The  writing  has  neither  address  nor  au- 
thor's name.  Its  destination  has  been  tradi- 
tionally handed  down,  and  is  confirmed  by 
the  contents  of  the  letter.  It  is  needless  to 
give  detailed  proof  of  this.    At  every  point 


THE   EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBREWS.  261 

one  is  conscious  of  listening  to  the  voice  of 
a  Jewish  Christian  pleading  with  his  compa- 
triots. The  epistle  is  saturated  with  Old 
Testament  thought.  More  than  this,  the  com- 
munity addressed  is  a  purely  Jewish  one.  The 
salvation  of  the  heathen  is  never  discussed 
(though  it  is  implied  in  ch.  ii.  9,  and  else- 
where); nor  is  a  word  said  concerning  the 
relation  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  each  other 
in  the  church.  So  far  as  this  writing  is  con- 
cerned, the  Gentiles  might  have  no  existence. 
They  are  not  excluded— and  on  the  principles 
of  the  writer  could  not  be;  his  theology  is 
Pauline  in  its  breadth.  But  they  are  out  of 
sight.  The  church  addressed  appears  to  be 
wholly  Jewish  in  its  environment ;  its  hopes 
and  fears,  temptations  and  trials  are  such  as 
belonged  to  Jewish  Christians  living  amongst 
their  fellow  Jews. 

Now,  such  a  community  as  this  could  only 
be  found  in  Palestine.  And  the  language  of 
chap.  ix.  6-10,  x.  1-22,  xiii.  9-15  implies  a  fa- 
miharity  with  the  sacrificial  system  and  an 
attachment  to  it,  such  as  Jews  of  Jenisalefn, 
above  all  others,  must  have  possessed  and 
felt.*   Verses  12-15  of  chap.  xiii.  all  but  name 

The  texts  quoted  to  show  the  writer's  ignorance  of  the 
ritual  system  of  Jerusalem  (eh.  vii.  27,  ix.  4,  x.  11)  seem  to 
us  to  bear  another  interpretation. 


262  APPENDIX. 

the  Holy  City  as  the  home  of  the  writer  and 
his  readers :  "  Jesus  suffered  outside  the  gate. 
Therefore  let  us  go  out  without  the  camp,  bear- 
ing His  reproach  (comp.  ch.  xii.  2).  For  we 
have  not  here  an  abiding  city ;  but  we  seek 
that  which  is  to  come."  Such  words  might, 
indeed,  be  addressed  to  Jews  everywliere,  to 
whom  Jerusalem,  whether  far  or  near,  was  the 
one  city  of  God ;  but  they  were  calculated  to 
appeal  with  their  full  force  to  men  who  lived 
within  its  walls,  and  who  clung  with  all  the 
affection  and  tenacity  of  their  Hebrew  nature 
to  that  "  holy  place  of  the  tabernacle  of  the 
Most  High,"  whose  existence  had  been  the 
pride  of  their  life  and  the  foundation  of  their 
hopes.  In  this  light,  a  pathetic  force  belongs 
to  the  example  of  the  patriarchs,  held  up  to 
men  called  to  wander  forth  "  seeking  a  coun- 
try," in  quest  of  "  the  city  which  hath  founda- 
tions "  (ch.  xi.  8-10),  who  knew  well  how  Jesus 
had  said  that  before  long  "  not  one  stone  "  of 
their  glorious  temple  "  would  be  left  upon  an- 
other." What  comfort  there  was  for  the  exiles 
in  the  thought  that  they  had  "  come  to  Mount 
Zion,  to  the  city  of  the  living  God,  heavenly 
Jerusalem !  "  (ch.  xii.  22). 

But  if  the  readers  were  Jews  of  Palestine, 
and  probably  of  Jerusalem,  they  were  Hellen- 
istic Jews.     The  author,  who  classes  himself 


THE   EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBEEWS.  26 


o 


with  those  whom  he  addresses,  thinks  and 
writes  in  Grreek.  He  is  master  of  a  finished 
and  powerful  Greek  style.  His  Bible  is  the 
Septnagint.  He  shows  little  or  no  knowledge 
of  the  Hebrew  text.  His  culture  is  Alexan- 
drine and  philosophical,  rather  than  rabbin- 
ical; although  the  roots  of  his  doctrine  are 
in  Palestinian  soil,  and  he  is  free  from  the 
vicious  allegorism  of  the  Alexandrines.  He 
uses  the  dialect  of  Philo  and  the  Hellenistic 
Book  of  Wisdom.  We  venture  to  think,  there- 
fore, that  the  epistle  was  addressed  not  to 
the  Judaean  church  at  large,  but  to  the  Hellen- 
istic section  of  it ;  or,  perhaps,  to  a  particular 
circle  within  the  Grasco-Jewish  communion 
at  Jerusalem.  Considering  the  intimate  ac- 
quaintance the  writer  professes  with  his  read- 
ers and  their  history  as  a  church,  and  con- 
sidering his  promise  to  come  and  see  them 
(ch.  xiii.  23),  we  cannot  believe,  as  some  do, 
that  his  homily  was  addressed  to  Hebrew 
Christians  generally.  It  has  a  distinct  com- 
munity and  a  definite  locality  in  view. 

Amongst  the  "many  ten  thousands"  of 
Christian  believers,  "  all  zealous  for  the  law," 
whom  James  pointed  out  to  Paul  at  Jerusalem 
a  few  years  before  (Acts  xxi.  20),  there  must 
have  been  a  number  of  separate  congrega- 
tions; to  one  of  which,  consisting  of  Hellen- 


264  APPENDIX. 

ists,  this  writer  had  formerly  belonged.  The 
barrier  of  language  had  from  the  first  (Acts 
vi.  1)  distinguished  the  Greek-speaking  Chris- 
tians of  Jerusalem  from  their  brethren ;  of 
this  important  body  the  martyr  Stephen,  and 
probably  Philip  the  Evangelist,  were  members. 
On  the  supposition  that  the  readers  belonged 
to  the  Hellenistic  side  of  the  Jerusalem  church, 
we  can  account  for  the  degree  of  wealth  and 
liberality  with  which  they  are  credited:  see 
chap.  vi.  10 ;  X.  34 ;  xiii.  2,  5,  16.  Elsewhere 
this  church  appears  as  a  recipient,  rather 
than  a  bestower  of  charity.  But  amongst 
the  Jews  of  foreign  speech  settled  at  Jerusa- 
lem there  would  be  found  men  of  substance, 
such  as  "  Mnason  of  Cyprus,"  Paul's  host  in 
this  city  (Acts  xxi.  16),  who  brought  thither 
the  wealth  acquired  in  other  lands;  and  on 
their  benevolence  the  poverty  of  their  native 
brethren  made  great  demands. 

The  title  of  the  epistle  has  been  urged 
against  its  Hellenistic  destination;  and  it  is 
true  that  in  the  New  Testament  "Hebrew" 
and  "  Hellenist "  are  used  as  antithetical  terms 
(Acts  vi.  1,  xxii.  2).  But  later  Christian  writ- 
ers, at  the  time  when  this  designation  {To  the 
Hehreivs)  first  appears,  called  all  the  Jewish 
Christians  "  Hebrews,"  without  distinction. 

If  the  epistle  were  addressed,  as  we  conjee- 


THE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBBEWS.  265 

ture,  to  a  limited  community  of  believers  in 
Jerusalem,  and  in  the  period  preceding  the 
fall  of  that  city — when  the  mother  church 
was  decimated  and  dispersed  and  its  traditions 
well-nigh  destroyed — we  can  understand,  bet- 
ter than  on  any  other  supposition,  how  the 
author's  name  has  disappeared. 

Date  of  the  Epistle. 

This  "word  of  exhortation"  was  written 
under  the  shadow  of  the  doom  of  national 
Judaism.  The  signs  which  our  Lord  had 
given  in  His  prophecies  of  judgment  were 
being  fulfilled ;  and  "  the  day "  was  visibly 
approaching  which  he  foretold  (ch.  x.  25). 
The  "forty  years"  of  respite  (30-70  a.d.) 
granted  to  unbelieving  Israel  had  nearly  ex- 
pired (ch.  iii.  7-19).  A  "shaking"  was  go- 
ing on  in  the  powers  of  earth  and  heaven, 
amongst  all  the  civil  and  religious  institu- 
tions of  the  nation,  which  portended  their 
speedy  removal  (ch.  xii.  26-29).  Judaism  still 
exists ;  "  the  high  priest  enters  once  a  year 
into  the  second  tabernacle,"  and  "  every  priest 
stands  daily  ministering  and  offering  often- 
times the  same  sacrifices,  which  can  never 
quite  take  away  sins"  (ch.  ix.  7,  x.  11;  comp. 
viii.  4) ;  but  the  entire  system  "  is  growing 
old  and  senile,  nigh  to  vanishing"  (ch.  viii.  13). 


266  APPENDIX. 

For  a  generation  Judaism  and  Christianity, 
the  old  covenant  and  the  new,  had  subsisted 
side  by  side;  but  this  could  be  no  longer. 
"He  taketh  away  the  first,  that  He  may 
establish  the  second"  (ch.  x.  9).  The  su- 
preme crisis  has  come  for  these  Jewish  Chris- 
tians. They  had  clung  to  the  ancient  fold, 
and  in  their  zeal  for  the  law  (Acts  xxi.  20) 
had  strained  their  loyalty  to  Jesus  Christ  al- 
most to  the  breaking  point.  Now  they  must 
choose  between  the  two  camps.  Either  they 
will  follow  their  High  Priest  "without  the 
gate,  bearing"  from  their  Jewish  kinsmen 
"  His  reproach " ;  or  they  must  take  sides 
with  His  enemies  and  crucifiers,  and  remain 
within  the  gate  of  Jerusalem,  awaiting  the 
judgment  of  which  "a  fearful  expectation" 
filled  every  thoughtful  Hebrew  mind  (ch.  x. 
27,  37-39).  This,  they  must  understand, 
would  be  to  "draw  back  unto  perdition." 
The  siege  and  fall  of  Jerusalem  verified  the 
warning  in  full  measure. 

The  above  indications  point  with  emphasis 
to  tJie  last  days  of  Jerusalem  as  the  time  and 
occasion  of  this  writing  (comp.  James  v.  1-5, 
8,  9) ;  but  not,  apparently,  to  the  very  last 
days.  The  storm  is  impending;  it  has  not 
burst.  Jerusalem  is  not  yet  "  compassed 
about  with  armies."    The  writer  expects  to 


THE   EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBKEWS.  267 

be  able  to  visit  his  friends ;  but  he  sees  there 
is  no  time  for  delay  (ch.  xiii.  19,  23). 

The  Jewish  war  broke  out  in  autumn  6Q, 
and  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  com- 
menced early  in  70  a.d.  If  we  place  the 
epistle  near  to  the  former  of  these  dates,  we 
are  not  far  from  the  truth.  In  chap.  xiii.  7 
the  Hebrews  are  bidden  to  be  mindful  of 
their  "  leaders,"  who  "  spake  to  them  the  word 
of  G-od  "  (comp.  ch.  ii.  3,  4),  and  "  considering 
the  issue  of  their  walk"  to  "imitate  their 
faith."  Now,  James  of  Jerusalem  died  a  mar- 
tyr in  62  A.D.,  and  Peter  probably  in  67.  Al- 
lowing for  these  events,  we  are  brought  down 
to  the  year  67  as  the  earliest  date  for  the 
epistle.  With  this  the  reference  to  Timothy 
in  ver.  23  accords.  Combining  it  with  the 
words  of  2  Tim.  iv.  9,  21,  we  are  led  to  sup- 
pose that  Timothy  had  obeyed  Paul's  sum- 
mons to  Rome,  that  he  also  had  been  impris- 
oned, and  was  now  released  after  his  master's 
death.  We  must  admit  that  an  element  of 
conjecture  enters  into  these  calculations ;  but, 
on  the  whole,  it  seems  tolerably  certain  that 
the  work  was  written  about  the  year  67  a.d., 
within  a  year  or  so  of  the  Pastoral  epistles, 
shortly  after  the  death  of  James,  Peter,  and 
Paul,  and  some  two  years  before  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem. 


268  APPENDIX. 

When  the  writer  says,  "  They  of  Italy  salute 
you,"  it  may  either  mean  that  he  is  writing 
from  Italy  and  sends  this  message  on  behalf 
of  the  brethren  there ;  or  that  it  comes  from 
a  party  of  Italian  Christians,  fugitives  or 
travellers  from  their  country,  in  whose  socie- 
ty he  finds  himself. 

Aim  and  Chaeacter  of  the  Epistle. 

Judaism  is  on  the  eve  of  destruction.  And 
yet,  as  it  often  proves  with  a  falling  cause,  it 
exerted  a  marvellous  energy  and  fascination 
in  its  decay.  The  dying  flame  of  the  nation's 
life  blazed  up  from  its  socket  with  fierce  heat ; 
and  Jerusalem  for  a  time  resisted  the  whole 
might  of  Eome,  and  held  the  world's  amazed 
attention.  The  Jewish  people  were  seething 
with  excitement,  with  a  passionate  and  con- 
tagious enthusiasm  for  their  country  and 
their  faith.  The  days  of  the  Maccabees  and 
of  David  seem  to  have  returned,  the  time  that 
every  patriotic  Israelite  prayed  and  longed 
for.  The  national  flag  is  lifted  against  Eome, 
the  new  Edom  and  Babylon.  It  was  the  war 
of  Jehovah ;  and  woe  to  every  traitor ! 

In  the  breast  of  the  Hebrew  Christians  there 
was  a  distressing  conflict.  The  influences 
around  them  all  tended  in  one  direction ;  the 
instincts  of  their  Jewish  blood,  the  courage 


THE   EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBREWS.  269 

and  pride  of  their  race,  the  entreaties  and 
threats  of  their  kinsfolk  joined  with  their 
own  devont  attachment  to  the  forms  of  the 
old  religion  to  create  a  stream  playing  npon 
them  with  immense  force,  whose  pressure  in 
a  moment  might  carry  them  utterly  away 
from  their  Christian  moorings  (ch.  ii.  1,  E.V.). 
They  had  been  faithful  hithei'to ;  but  would 
they  "  hold  fast  the  beginning  of  their  confi- 
dence firm  unto  the  end  "  ?  (ch.  iii.  14.)  To 
side  with  Judaism  now  would  mean  utter 
apostasy  from  Christ ;  it  would  signify  noth- 
ing less  than  endorsing  the  "crucifixion  of 
the  Son  of  God,"  renouncing  His  sacrifice 
for  sin  and  "  counting  His  blood  an  unholy 
thing"  ;  it  would  be,  in  a  word,  to  "tread 
Him  under  foot."  They  would  thus  expose 
themselves,  without  a  place  for  repentance, 
to  the  "consuming  fire"  of  God's  judicial 
anger  (ch.  iii.  12,  17,  iv.  11,  vi.  6,  x.  26-31,  xii. 
29).  These  fearful  warnings,  especially  when 
coming  from  a  writer  so  calm  in  temper  and 
measured  in  style,  imply  that  the  danger  of 
apostasy  was  real  and  urgent  in  the  extreme. 
The  letter  is  written,  therefore,  to  dissuade 
Hebrew  Christians  from  returning  to  Judaism. 
This  aim  determines  the  course  of  its  teaching 
throughout.  The  author  desires  to  give  his 
fellow-believers  a  true  conception  of  the  worth 


270  APPENDIX. 

of  Christianity.  He  would  have  them  under- 
stand the  all-sufficiency  of  Christ,  the  great- 
ness and  completeness  of  the  salvation  He 
confers  (ch.  ii.  3,  ix.  26-28),  the  transcendent 
excellence  of  the  new  covenant  made  in  His 
blood  (ch.  viii.  6,  xiii.  10),  the  glory  and  sta- 
bility of  the  kingdom  He  has  founded  (ch.  xii. 
22-28),  and  the  "  great  recompense  of  reward  " 
which  fidelity  to  Him  will  ensure  (ch.  x.  35). 
Realizing  these  things,  and  "  looking  away  to 
Jesus"  from  the  fears  and  temptations  that 
surround  them,  they  will  like  Him  be  enabled 
to  "  endure  the  cross,  despising  the  shame " ; 
they  will  bear  the  taunts  of  their  kindred  as 
His  reproach;  they  will  cheerfully  leave  be- 
hind them  city  and  goods,  content  to  belong 
to  the  heavenly  Zion  and  to  have  in  it  "a 
better  and  more  enduring  substance." 

The  new  covenant  is  set  forth,  on  the  one 
hand,  in  contrast  with  the  old,  which  was  im- 
perfect, transitory,  and  in  process  of  dissolu- 
tion ;  but  at  the  same  time  as  the  fulfilment 
of  that  covenant,  su23erseding  the  ancient  re- 
ligion because  it  realized  its  ideal  and  satisfied 
the  spiritual  needs  which  it  created,  abolishing 
it  as  the  substance  does  the  shadow,  as  the 
finished  work  the  preliminary  sketch  and  out- 
line (see  ch.  viii.  5 ;  ix.  1-12,  23 ;  x.  1-18 ;  xii. 
18-24).     Of  this  theory  of  development  ap- 


THE   EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBREWS.  271 

plied  to  the  Mosaic  system,  St.  Paul  gives  a 
hint  in  Col.  ii.  17 ;  it  is  the  working  out,  in 
another  direction,  of  his  great  maxim  stated 
in  1  Cor.  xv.  46 :  "  First  the  natural,  then  the 
spiritual." 

In  this  line  of  argument,  we  perceive,  the 
writer  reproduces  the  mental  process  by  which 
he  himself  has  been  brought  to  the  knowledge 
of  Christ.  We  can  read,  through  this  epistle, 
the  spiritual  biography  of  a  typical  Hebrew 
Christian,  whose  Israelitish  faith  has  been 
gradually  transformed  by  the  spirit  of  the 
gospel.  "  He  speaks  as  one  who,  step  by  step, 
had  read  the  fulfilment  of  the  Old  Covenant 
in  the  New,  without  any  rude  crisis  of  awak- 
ening or  sharp  struggle  with  traditional  errors. 
His  Judaism  has  been  all  along  the  Judaism 
of  the  prophets  and  not  of  the  Pharisees,  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  not  of  the  schools" 
(Westcott). 

Judaism  is  here,  above  all,  the  Levitical  re- 
ligion, Aaron,  rather  than  Moses,  is  its  rep- 
resentative figure ;  the  sanctuary,  not  the  deca- 
logue, is  its  centre.  It  is  viewed  essentially 
as  a  system  of  worship,  a  means  of  approach 
to  God;  not  as  a  system  of  law,  which  men 
must  keep  in  order  to  be  just  with  God.  The 
salvation  of  the  gospel  is  set  forth  throughout 
in  terms  drawn  from  the  ritual  of  the  Penta- 


272  APPENDIX. 

teucli.  Instead  of  the  atonement  and  justifi- 
cation by  faith,  we  read  of  the  "  cleansing  of 
the  conscience  from  dead  works  to  worship  a 
living  God,"  of  men  who  "  draw  near  with  a 
true  heart  in  full  assurance  of  faith,  with 
hearts  sprinkled  from  an  evil  conscience  and 
bodies  washed  with  pure  water"  (ch.  ix.  14, 
X.  22).  The  sacrifice  of  Christ  and  the  Person 
of  Christ  are  no  less  dominant  in  this  than 
in  the  previous  epistles ;  but  they  are  viewed 
from  another  standpoint,  and  apprehended  in 
a  different  way.  In  Hebrews  the  blood  of 
Christ  cleanses  worshippers :  in  Romans  it  rec- 
onciles enemies.  The  powerful  delineation  of 
Christ's  Divine-human  glory  given  us  in  the 
early  chapters  of  this  work  leads  up  to  the 
conception  of  "  the  great  High  Priest "  stand- 
ing within  the  veil,  the  intercessor  and  fore- 
runner of  His  people :  the  Christology  of  the 
other  epistles  culminates  in  the  thought  of 
the  "  Lord  Jesus  "  to  whom  "  every  knee  shall 
bow  and  every  tongue  confess,"  the  "Head 
over  all  things  to  His  Church,"  in  whom  it  is 
God's  purpose  to  gather  into  one  the  universe 
of  being. 

One  cannot  observe  the  salient  features  of 
this  epistle  without  being  sensible  of  the 
contrast  it  presents  to  the  known  letters  of 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBREWS.  273 

St.  Paul.   And  yet  there  is  very  much  in  com- 
mon.    The  epistolary  method  is  the  same- 
only  pursued  here  more  methodically.     The 
topics  treated  are  largely  the  same,  both  in 
doctrine  (comp.  ch.  i.  1-4  with  Col.  i.  14-22, 
ii.  9,  10:  Christ  is  in   each  case  contrasted 
with  angels;  ch.  ii.  8-10  with  Phil.  ii.  5-11 ;  ch. 
ix.  11-15  with  Eom.  iii.  19-25)  and  morals 
(comp.  ch.   xiii.   1-6   with  Eom.   xii.   10-13, 
1  Thess.  iv.  6 ;  ch.  xiii.  16, 17  with  Gal.  vi.  6-10,' 
1  Thess.  V.  12,  13).     The  prayer  of  chap.  xiii. 
20,  21  we  should  not  be  surprised  to  find  in 
any  of  Paul's  epistles.    Above  all,  the  theology 
of  the  writer  is  of  a  truly  Pauline  stamp,  both 
in  the  doctrines  which  compose  it,  and  in  the 
proportion  and  emphasis  with  which  they  are 
delivered.    The  universal. lordship  and  all-suf- 
ficiency of  Christ,  His  nature  equally  Divine 
and   human,   forgiveness    and   sanctification 
man's  great  necessities,  the  inadequacy  and 
failure  of  Judaism  to  secure  these  ends,  are 
truths  as  prominent  in  this  epistle  as  in  the 
others,  and  equally  absorbing  to  the  mind  of 
the  writer.     The  glory  of  Christ  and  the  way 
of  man's  salvation  occupy  our  thoughts  in 
Hebrews  as  much  as  in  Romans  or  Ephesians. 
We  cannot  wonder  that  Origen  should  say, 
"  The  thoughts  belong  to  the  apostle ; "  and 


274  APPENDIX. 

that  the  vast  majority  of  readers  have  ac- 
cepted this  writing  without  any  difficulty  as 
the  work  of  St.  Paul. 

But  on  closer  examination,  there  exhibits 
itseK  to  us  in  this  profound  work  another 
mind,  the  mind  of  one  who  had  passed  through 
the  school  of  Paul  and  deeply  imbibed  his 
teaching,  but  who  sees  everything  from  his 
own  point  of  view  and  in  the  light  of  an  ex- 
perience of  another  order  than  that  of  Saul 
the  Pharisee — one  who  has  worked  over  again 
and  restated  for  himself  and  for  his  Hebrew 
brethren,  under  an  inspiration  peculiar  to 
himself,  the  doctrine  of  the  Gentile  apostle. 
The  fact  that  Hebrews  has  so  much  in  com- 
mon with  other  epistles  makes  the  difference 
more  impressive,  and  harder  to  explain  on  the 
theory  of  a  single  authorship.  If  the  same 
subjects  are  treated,  it  is  from  a  new  stand- 
point ;  if  the  same  phrases  are  used,  it  is  al- 
ways with  an  altered  shade  of  meaning. 

Moreover,  there  are  some  things  that  we 
have  learnt  to  think  inseparable  from  Paul's 
teaching,  which  we  miss  in  this  epistle.  This 
writer  has  not,  so  far  as  we  can  find,  St.  Paul's 
peculiar  mystical  sense  of  the  indwelling  Christ. 
The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  our  brother,  helper, 
shepherd,  priest,  intercessor.  Saviour  to  the 
uttermost ;  it  is  impossible  to  exalt  Him  more 


THE   EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBKEWS.  275 

highly,  to  trust  and  adore  Him  more  perfectly 
than  this  great  teacher  does.  But  the  thought 
of  the  believer's  personal  union  with  Christ, 
never  absent  in  St.  Paul,  is  absent  from  this 
epistle.  The  phrases  in  Christ,  in  the  Lord, 
and  the  hke,  which  Paul  is  in  the  habit  of 
using  whenever  he  speaks  of  Christian  acts  and 
states,  are  suddenly  and  completely  dropped ; 
not  once  in  this  long  epistle  does  such  an  ex- 
pression occur  as  Christ  in  me,  or  in  you.  Nor 
does  the  author  once  (in  his  genuine  text) 
speak  of  the  Redeemer  as  Christ  Jesus,  which 
Paul  does  constantly.  Once  the  apostle,  in 
1  Tim.  ii.  5,  calls  Christ  "  mediator  of  Grod  and 
men  " :  this  conception  possesses  the  writer  of 
Hebrews  always.  It  is  the  thought  of  Grod, 
the  living  God,  that  fills  his  soul.  Holy  fel- 
lowship with  God  is  for  him  the  end  and  sum 
of  life.  "  My  soul  thirsteth  for  God,  for  the 
living  God:  when  shall  I  come  and  appear 
before  God?"  Such  was  the  need  that  had 
brought  him  to  Christ.  In  Jesus  he  has 
found  the  way  to  this  end,  which  Judaism 
pointed  out  and  prepared  for,  but  never 
reached.  Christianity  is  to  him  the  perfect 
religion,  because  it  inaugurates  the  perfect 
and  everlasting  worship. 

We  observed  at  the  outset  how  thoroughly 
in  St.  Paul  the  style  and  the  man  are  one.     It 


276  APPENDIX. 

is  no  less  the  case  here.  One  cannot  describe 
the  manner  and  temper  of  the  author  without 
opposing*  him  to  the  apostle  of  the  Grentiles. 
"  The  style,  temperament,  and  the  cast  of 
thought  characteristic  of  this  epistle  are 
markedly  different  from  those  traceable  in 
the  letters  to  the  Gralatian,  Corinthian,  and 
Eoman  churches.  The  contrast  has  its  source 
in  difference  of  mental  constitution  and  of 
religious  experience.  Paul  was  of  an  impetu- 
ous, passionate,  vehement  nature ;  hence,  his 
thought  rushes  on  like  a  mountain  torrent 
leaping  over  the  rocks.  The  writer  of  our 
epistle  is  obviously  a  man  of  calm,  contem- 
plative, patient  spirit;  and  hence  the  move- 
ment of  his  mind  is  like  that  of  a  stately  river 
flowing  through  a  plain.  Their  respective 
ways  of  looking  at  the  law  speak  to  an  entire- 
ly different  religious  history  "  (A.  B.  Bruce). 

The  style  throughout,  as  Bishop  Westcott 
says,  is  that  of  "  a  practised  scholar."  Here 
is  nothing  "  rude  in  speech  "  (2  Cor.  xi.  6),  any 
more  than  in  knowledge — no  abrupt  apos- 
trophes and  lively  dialectics,  no  unfinished 
sentences,  no  marks  of  the  unstudied  con- 
versational freedom  with  which  Paul  at  once 
delights  and  tries  us ;  and  this  in  an  epistle 
which  affords  abundant  room  for  the  exercise 
of  these  qualities  of  style,  had  the  apostle 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE   HEBEEWS.  277 

himself  been  the  writer.  "The  calculated 
force  of  the  periods  is  sharply  distinguished 
from  the  impetuous  eloquence  of  St.  Paul. 
The  author  is  never  carried  away  by  his 
thoughts.  He  has  seen  and  measured  all  that 
he  desires  to  convey  to  his  readers  before  he 
begins  to  write.  In  writing,  he  has,  like  an 
artist,  simply  to  give  life  to  the  model  which 
he  has  already  completely  fashioned  "  ( West- 
cott).  We  agree  entirely  with  Dr.  Moulton's 
judgment,  expressed  in  his  valuable  Commen- 
tary on  this  epistle :  *  "  From  point  to  point 
the  general  Hkeness  to  St.  Paul's  writings 
comes  out  more  and  more  plainly;  on  the 
other  hand  arises  a  continually  increasing 
wonder  that  the  G-reek  sentences  and  periods 
should  ever  have  been  attributed  to  that 
apostle's  hand." 

The  Author  of  the  Epistle. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  clear  that 
we  cannot  acquiesce  in  the  traditional  behef 
that  the  apostle  Paul  wrote  the  epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  The  title  remains  unchanged  in 
the  Revised  Version.  But  this  is  no  expres- 
sion of  the  Eevisers' judgment;  in  the  pref- 

*  PubKshed  in  the  Xeiv  Testament  Commentary  for  English 
Readers,  Vol.  III.,  and  reprinted  in  a  small  and  cheap  volume 
(Titus — James)  in  the  School  Commentary. 


278  APPENDIX. 

ace  to  the  Eevised  New  Testament,  4  (e),  it 
is  stated  that  the  revision  "  does  not  extend 
to  the  titles  of  the  New  Testament  Books." 

The  letter  is  strictly  anonymous.  The 
writer  has  nothing  to  say  abont  himself,  ex- 
cept that  he  "believes  he  has  a  good  con- 
science "  and  "  desires  to  behave  himself  well 
in  everything,"  that  he  is  "  persuaded  better 
things  "  of  his-  readers  than  some  of  his  words 
seem  to  imply,  that  he  has  "  written  briefly," 
and  that  he  "  hopes  through  their  prayers  to 
be  restored  quickly  to  them "  and  will  come 
to  see  them,  if  possible,  in  Timothy's  com- 
pany (ch.  vi.  9 ;  xiii.  18,  19,  22,  23).  Not  that 
he  seeks  to  conceal  himself ;  he  is  well  known 
to  his  readers,  and  knows  them  well.  But  he 
is  a  modest  man,  full  of  his  argument,  full  of 
the  needs  and  the  peril  of  those  to  whom  he 
writes ;  and  it  does  not  occur  to  him  to  refer 
to  himself  more  explicitly;  nor  has  he  any 
such  official  relation  to  the  community  ad- 
dressed as  would  make  this  necessary.  Hence 
his  personality  remains  entirely  in  the  shade. 
In  chap.  ii.  3,  4  he  distinguishes  himself  from 
the  original  disciples  of  the  Lord,  and  takes 
his  place  along  with  his  readers  generally* 

*  This  may  seem  to  militate  against  our  supposition  that 
the  readers  were  Christians  of  Palestine,  and  probably  of 
Jerusalem.     For  there  would  be  living  in  the  Holy  Land  so 


THE   EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBEEWS.  279 

amongst  Christians  of  the  second  generation 
(contrast  1  Cor.  ix.  1 ;  Gal.  i.  1,  12). 

The  conclusions  we  have  arrived  at  respect- 
ing the  character  of  the  epistle,  the  readers  to 
whom  it  was  addi*essed  and  the  author's  re- 
lations with  them,  seem  to  exclude  the  hy- 
pothesis of  a  mediate  as  well  as  that  of  the 
direct  Pauline  authorship.  This,  however, 
was  not  the  view  held  by  the  earliest  author- 
ities upon  the  subject,  the  learned  G-reek 
Fathers,  Clement  of  Alexandria  (200  a.d.)  and 
Origen  (230  a.d.).  Clement  declares  that  Paul 
wrote  the  epistle  in  Hebrew,  and  that  Luke 
translated  it  for  the  use  of  the  Greeks ;  and 
this  notion  seems  to  have  been  a  generation 
older  than  Clement.  Yet  it  cannot  have  been 
firmly  established;  for  Origen,  a  generation 
later,  who  was  the  greatest  scholar  of  his 
time,  tacitly  rejects  it.  Judging  the  hypoth- 
esis of  translation  by  internal  evidence,  "  we 
do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  it  is  absolutely 
untenable"  (Moulton). 

Origen  wiites  thus :  "If  I  were  to  express  my 
own  opinion,  I  should  say  that  the  thoughts 

late  as  67  a.d.  not  a  few  who  had  seen  the  Lord  Jesus  on 
earth.  Still,  the  bulk  of  the  Hebrew  Christians  at  this  time 
were  believers  at  second-hand ;  and  this  would  be  the  ease 
especially  with  Hellenists  of  Jerusalem,  of  whom  many  had, 
in  all  probability,  migrated  thither  from  abroad. 


280  APPENDIX. 

are  the  thoughts  of  the  apostle,  but  the  lan- 
guage and  the  composition  that  of  one  who 
recaUed  from  memory  and,  as  it  were,  made 
notes  of  what  was  said  by  his  master.  If, 
therefore,  any  church  holds  this  epistle  as 
Paul's,  let  it  be  approved  for  this  also ;  for  it 
was  not  without  reason  that  the  men  of  old 
times  have  handed  it  down  as  Paul's.  But 
who  wrote  the  epistle,  God  only  knows  cer- 
tainly. The  account  that  we  have  received 
is  twofold :  some  say  that  Clement,  who  be- 
came bishop  of  Rome,  wrote  the  epistle ;  oth- 
ers that  Luke  wrote  it,  who  wrote  the  Gospel 
and  the  Acts.  But  on  this  I  will  say  no 
more.''  The  hypothesis  of  a  Hebrew  original 
has  disappeared.  And  it  is  clear  that  already 
the  name  of  the  author  was  lost,  and  the  men 
of  Origen's  time  had  no  more  certain  means 
of  ascertaining  it  than  ourselves.  Notwith- 
standing this  uncertainty,  Origen  speaks  of 
^'fourteen  epistles  of  Paul,"  and  quotes  this 
writing  habitually  under  the  apostle's  name. 
Authorship  was  evidently  understood  with 
some  latitude.  Delitzsch  has  powerfully  ad- 
vocated the  theory  of  Origen,  inferring  LuMs 
literary  authorship  from  the  resemblances  be- 
tween Hebrews  and  this  Evangelist's  writings. 
Jerome  and  Augustine,  guided  by  Origen 
and  the  Greek  Fathers,  persuaded  the  Latin 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBREWS.  281 

Church  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century 
to  accept  the  epistle.  Jerome  wiites:  "The 
custom  of  the  Latins  does  not  receive  it 
among  the  canonical  Scriptures  as  St.  Paul's." 
From  his  time  the  custom  changed.*  The 
writing  was  known  and  valued  in  the  West 
from  the  beginning ;  Clement  of  Rome  (about 
100  A.D.)  makes  use  of  it.  Tertullian  of  North 
Africa,  contemporary  with  the  Alexandrian 
Clement,  calls  it  the  "epistle  of  Barnahas,^^ 
and  gives  it  a  secondary  authority ;  there  are 
traces  of  the  same  tradition  in  Jerome  and 
elsewhere.  This  view  has  been  revived  of 
late,  and  commands  a  large  vote  amongst 
modern  scholars.  Barnabas  was  a  Hellen- 
istic Jew,  but  connected  with  the  church  of 
Jerusalem  by  family  ties  and  residence  (Acts 
iv.  36,  37;  xi.  22;  Col.  iv.  10).  At  the  same 
time,  he  was  an  associate  of  St.  Paul,  and 
a  man  of  kindred  type.  His  surname,  con- 
ferred by  the  apostles,  signifies  "  son  of  ex- 
hortation "  (Acts  iv.  36,  R.y.) ;  and  our  author 
describes  his  letter  as  a  "  word  of  exhorta- 
tion" (ch.  xiii.  22).  Moreover,  Barnabas  was 
a  Levite ;  and  this  is  the  sacerdotal  epistle, 
which  makes  Christ,  above   all  things,  "the 

*  But  it  was  on  canonicity  rather  than  authorship  that 
Jerome  and  Augustine  insisted ;  on  the  latter  point  they  did 
not  go  further  than  Origen,  if  so  far. 


282  APPENDIX. 

High  Priest  of  our  confession."  To  the  Bar- 
nabas hypothesis  E-enan  inchnes ;  also  Weiss 
and  Salmon,  doubtfully.  On  the  other  side, 
we  must  remember  that  the  writer  appears 
to  include  himself  in  the  younger  generation 
of  believers  (ch.  ii.  3  and  xiii.  7),  whereas 
Barnabas  was  a  contemporary  of  the  first 
apostles,  and  as  we  gather  from  his  position 
in  Acts  xi.-xv. — especially  from  Acts  xiv.  12 
— was  considerably  senior  to  Paul. 

At  the  Reformation  the  old  controversy  re- 
specting this  epistle  revived.  Erasmus  writes : 
"Paul,  or  whoever  was  the  author  of  this 
epistle."  Calvin,  though  he  calls  it  "  apostol- 
ical "  and  attributes  the  doubts  of  its  author- 
ity to  "  the  artifice  of  Satan,"  yet  continues : 
"  For  my  part,  I  cannot  be  brought  to  recog- 
nize Paul  as  the  author."  He  sees,  too,  that 
it  is  no  translation  from  the  Hebrew.  "  The 
writer  professes  himself,  in  the  second  chap- 
ter, one  of  the  disciples  of  the  apostles  " ;  but 
"  ivTio  he  was  makes  little  matter."  So  Calvin 
concludes. 

Luther  started  a  new  theory.  He  put  the 
writing  down  to  Apollos,  Apollos  is  described 
in  Acts  xviii.  24  as  "  a  certain  Jew,  an  elo- 
quent man,"  and  "  mighty  in  the  Scriptures  " ; 
and  our  unknown  author  was  all  this.  He 
was  an  "  Alexandrian  by  birth " ;  and  this 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBEEWS.  283 

would  account  for  the  Alexandrine  features 
of  tlie  epistle.  He  was  closely  connected  with 
St.  Paul,  and  regarded  by  him  as  one  who 
built  on  the  foundation  he  had  laid,  and 
"  watered  "  what  he  had  "  planted  "  (1  Cor.  iii. 
5-10) ;  this  is  very  much  the  relationship  of 
the  fourteenth  to  the  earlier  epistles.  Luther's 
bold  conjecture  has  been  endorsed,  more  or 
less  positively,  by  such  critics  as  Bleek,  Lline- 
mann,  Kurtz,  Alford,  Farrar,  and  Moulton. 
The  chief  objection  to  this  view,  besides  the 
silence  of  ancient  writers,  is  that  Apollos 
labored  in  the  field  of  the  Gentile  mission. 
His  Christian  course  began  at  Ephesus  about 
54  A.D. ;  and  we  find  him  next  at  Corinth  in 
58  A.D.,  and  hear  of  him  in  Crete  about  66  a.d. 
(Tit.  iii.  13).  There  seems  to  have  been  no  op- 
portunity for  his  acquiring  the  early  and  close 
acquaintance  with  members  of  the  church  in 
Palestine  which  the  epistle  implies.  If  it 
could  be  shown  that  the  letter  was  addressed 
to  Alexandria  (as  Farrar  thinks)  rather  than 
Jerusalem,  the  case  would  be  altered. 

One  other  possible  candidate  is  suggested 
for  the  authorship:  "May  not  the  author 
have  been  Silas  f "  asks  Dr.  Grodet.  Eiehm 
and  Weiss  have  shown  in  how  many  respects 
this  church  founder  and  apostolic  man  meets 
the  conditions  of  the  case.     Silas  (or  Silvanus) 


284  APPENDIX. 

was  a  leading  member  and  a  "prophet"  in 
the  church  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  22,  27,  40). 
His  Roman  name  and  citizenship,  and  his  as- 
sociation with  Paul,  mark  him  out  as  a  Hel- 
lenist. He  was  Paul's  associate  for  two  years 
on  his  second  missionary  journey,  and  must 
have  been  imbued  with  Pauline  doctrine. 
During  the  same  period  Timothy  was  his 
comrade,  to  whom  this  author  refers  in  chap, 
xiii.  23.  He  acted  as  Peter's  secretary  in 
writing  his  first  epistle  (ch.  v.  12,  13);  and 
if,  as  seems  likely,  "  Babylon "  there  signifies 
Rome — and  1  Peter,  as  seems  most  likely, 
was  written  about  the  year  66 — then  Silas 
was  in  Eome,  associated  with  Paul,  Luke, 
and  Timothy,  shortly  before  the  date  which 
we  have  assigned  to  this  writing;  and  we 
can  account  for  the  resemblances  of  language 
which  connect  together  Hebrews,  the  Pastoral 
epistles,  and  the  writings  of  St.  Luke.  As  a 
younger  colleague  of  apostles,  Silas  could 
naturally  speak  in  the  language  of  Heb.  ii.  3. 
But  his  name,  like  that  of  Apollos,  is  never 
mentioned  by  antiquity  in  this  connection. 

On  the  whole,  we  conclude  that  the  epistle 
was  written  by  Silas,  or  Barnabas,  or  some 
one  connected  tvith  Palestine,  amongst  the  many 
inspired  men  of  the  second  Christian  generation 
who  are  unknown  to  us.     Our  ignorance  of 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBKEWS.  285 

tlie  person  of  the  writer  in  no  way  diminishes 
the  value  of  this  Scripture;  but  rather,  as 
Bishop  Westcott  says,  "  enlarges  our  sense  of 
the  spiritual  wealth  of  the  apostolic  age."  If 
it  should  be  found  that  "a  noble  picture, 
which  had  been  attributed  to  Raphael,  was 
not  by  that  artist,  there  would  not  be  one 
masterpiece  the  less,  but  one  great  master  the 
more^^  (Thiersch). 

"  In  many  portions  and  in  many  fashions," 
the  author  says,  God  spake  of  old  time  to  men. 
The  saying  is  true  of  Scripture  throughout, 
which  is  more  various  in  its  human  modes 
than  we  used  to  suppose.  The  "  fashion  "  of 
this  richly  inspired  master  in  Israel  and  his 
"  portion  "  in  the  Divine  utterances  are  pecul- 
iar to  himself.  They  are  not  for  this  reason 
less  Divine. 

Analysis. 

This  work  is  more  regular  in  structure  and  rhetorical  in 
form  than  any  previous  epistle.  Romans  resembles  it  in 
logical  development;  but  it  is  less  of  a  formal  treatise  than 
this.  With  great  homiletical  skill  the  writer  interweavfes 
his  exhortations  with  his  teaching,  taking  advantage  of  the 
practical  points  of  his  exposition  as  they  arise.  From  the 
beginning  to  chap.  x.  18,  however,  the  epistle  is  chiefly 
doctrinal ;  from  that  point  to  the  end,  almost  wholly  hor- 
tatory. 

The  central  doctrine  is  that  of  the  High  Priesthood 
of  Jesus  Christ:  "We  have  a  great  High  Priest,  passed 


286  APPENDIX. 

through  the  heavens,  Jesus  the  Son  of  God  "  (eh.  iv.  14). 
Its  fundamental  Old  Testament  text  is  Psalm  ex.  4,  so 
often  quoted  :  "  The  Lord  hath  sworn,  and  will  not  repent : 
Thou  art  a  priest  forever,  after  the  order  of  Melchizedek. " 

A.  The  DocTKiNE  falls  into  two  main  divi- 
sions: (1)  concerning  Christ  the  Mediator  of 
the  new  covenant,  chaps,  i.-vii. ;  (2)  concern- 
ing the  new  covenant  and  its  efficacy,  chaps, 
viii.  1-x.  18.  More  briefly:  (1)  the  Priest, 
(2)  the  Sanctuary. 

The  Peiestly  Office  and  Wokk  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

I.  Concerning  Christ  Himself,  chaps,  i.-vii. 

§  1.  In  His  Person  (chaps,  i.,  ii.): 
(a)  As  God's  /Son,  and  the  Heir  of  all  things  (eh.  i.). 
(6)  As  Jesus,  the  brother  of  God's  saints  (eh.  ii.  5-18). 
In  both  these  respects  He  is  compared  with  angels, 
to  whom  on  the  Divine  side  He  was  absolutely  supe- 
rior, though  as  man  "  in  some  little  made  lower"  (ch. 
ii.  7):  in  the  exhortation  that  follows  He  is  compared 
in  a  similar  strain  with  Moses  and  with  Joshua. 

The  doctrine  of  §  1  {a)  is  improved  in  (a)  the  brief 
homily  of  chap.  ii.  1-4,  bidding  the  readers  not  he 
carried  away  ;  and  of  §  1  {a)  and  (6)  together,  in  (P) 
the  exhortation  of  chaps,  iii.  and  iv. ,  based  on  the 
history  of  the  "gospel"  (ch.  iv.  2)  of  Israel's  origi- 
nal call,  and  bidding  them  holdfast  their  confidence 
to  the  end. 

Chap.  iv.  14-16  sums  up  the  foregoing  sections,  and 
is  the  starting-point  for  that  which  follows. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBKEWS.  287 

§  2.  Concerning  Christ  in  Ris  priestly  office,  for  which  by 
all  that  has  been  said  before  He  is  shown  to  be  supremely 
qualified:  chap.  iv.  14-vii.  28,  ''Such  a  high  priest  be- 
came us." 

Here  we  distinguish : 

(a)  His  appoi7itment  by  God,  in  which  He  resembled 

Aaron,  chap.  v.  4-10. 
(6)  His  correspondence  to  Melchizedek— the  Old  Testa- 
ment tj^e  of  a  perfect  priest— by  which  He  sur- 
passed and  superseded  the  Aaronic  order  (ch.  vii. 
1-28):   especially  in   these  two  points,  viz.,  that 
Christ's  priesthood  was  inherent  in  His  person,  and 
unlimited  in  its  duration  ;  it  was  "after  the  power 
of  an  indissoluble  life''  (ver.  16).     Hence  it  was  the 
subject  of  a  solemn  oath  on  God's  part  (vv.  20-25). 
Here  lies  the  pith  of  the  epistle,  that  which  will 
tax  the  intelligence  of  the  readers ;  but  the  doctrine 
which,  if  they  grasp  it,  will  break  the  spell  of  Juda- 
ism for  them.     So  the  writer  prefaces  this  part  of  his 
argument  with  a  third  and  full  homily  (y),  exhorting 
them  to  go  on  to  perfection  (chaps,  v.  11- vi.  20). 

II.  Concerning   the  New  Covenant,  chap, 
viii.  1-x.  18. 

§  1.  A  new  and  better  Covenant  there  must  be,  chap, 
viii.: 

{a)  Christ's  priesthood  implies  this,  vv.  1-6  (comp. 
vii.  12),  and 

{b)  The  Old  Covenant  w^^  essentially  defective,  as  Script- 
ure shows,  vv.  7-13  (comp.  vii.  18,  19). 

§  2.  The  New  Covenant  compared  with  the  Old,  in  its 
sanctuary,  sacrifices,  etc.,  chap.  ix. 

{a)  Differing  as  the  worldly,  carnal,  and  temporal  from 
the  heavenly,  spiritual,  and  eternal,  vv.  1-15. 


288  APPENDIX. 

(6)  But  hloodshedding — the  sacrifice  of  life — is  common 

to  both,  Yv.  16-22  ; 
(c)  Differing  as  the  passing  shadows  from  the  one  abid- 
ing substance  of  salvation,  vv.  23-28. 
§  3.  The  religious  perfection  imparted  by  the  New  Cove- 
nant, chap.  X.  1-18. 

By  its  perfect  sacrifice — a  sacrifice  performed  by  the  will 

of  the  victim  (vv.  ^-10)— full  remission  of  sins  is 

secured,  which  involves  everything  else. 

Here  the  argument  culminates:  "  By  one  offering 

He  has  secured  perfection  for  all  the  future  to  the 

sanctified "   (ver.  14 ;  comp.   vii.  25).      Our  perfect 

Priest,  presenting  in  ''the  greater  and  more  perfect 

tabernacle"  His  perfect  sacrifice,  has  now  a  perfect 

holiness  to  impart  to  us. 

B.  The  ExHOKTATiON  extends  from  this  point 
nearly  to  the  end,  chap.  x.  19-xiii.  17.  Three 
considerable  homilies  (a,  p,  y)  have  been  al- 
ready interjected,  so  that  the  hortatory  quite 
balances  the  doctrinal  part  of  the  epistle. 
These  practical  paragraphs  are  continuous  in 
thought,  though  separated  in  place. 

(8)  He  exhorts  the  readers  to  faithfulness  to  the  new 
covenant,  chap.  x.  19-39  : 
{a)  in  the  right  use  of  its  privileges,  vv.  19-25  ; 
(6)  in  fear  of  the  consequences  of  apostasy,  vv.  26- 

31  (comp.  vi.  4-8) ; 
(c)  in  recollection  of  their  former  endurance,  vv. 
32-39. 
(e)  He  encourages  them  by  the  history  of  the  heroes  of 
faith — the  "many  sons"  of  chap.  ii.  10  (comp.  vi. 
12) — crowned  by  the  example  of  Jesus,  chap.  xi.  1- 
xii.  4. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS.  289 

(0  He  at  once  consoles  them  by  the  thought  of  their  son- 
ship^  proved  hy  chastening  ;  and  warns  them  ot  pos- 
sible disinheritance,  chap.  xii.  5-17. 

(yj)  He  enforces  all  this,  finally,  by  a  vivid  presentation 
of  the  glory  and  permanency  of  the  new  kingdom 
of  6hd,  to  which  they  belong,  chap.  xii.  18-29. 
Chapter  xiii.  1-17  consists  of  general  exhortations, 
in  the  midst  of  which — 

(6)  the  writer  urges  his  readers  to  a  final  rupture  with 
Judaism,  vv.  10-14. 

The  epistle  concludes  with  the  Paul-like 
prayer  of  w.  20,  21,  marked,  however,  with 
the  distinctive  token  of  the  Hood  of  an  eternal 
covenant;  and  with  the  personal  notes  of 
vv.  18,  19,  22-24,  which  give  it  the  character 
of  a  letter. 

It  is  sealed  with  the  Pauline  benediction, 
ver.  25, — with  which  this  little  book  may  also 
close ; 

GRACE  BE  WITH  YOU  ALL.      AMEN. 


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THE  CHRISTIAN  INTELLIGENCER,  says:  "The  author 
gives  gold  fresh  coined  in  the  mint  of  his  own  mind.  He  con- 
siders his  subject  under  all  its  aspects,  first  showing  the  sources 
of  sorrow,  then  the  varieties  of  form  it  assumes  and  its  benefits 
and  consolations.  The  beauty  and  symplicity  of  its  style,  and 
the  vein  of  touching  sympathy  that  runs  through  its  pages 
must  make  it  a  welcome  volume  to  all  sorrowing  and  afflicted 
readers".  Its  exquisite  typographical  neatness  is  as  refreshing 
to  the  eye  as  its  contents  are  to  the  heart." 

nOMANGE  OF  PROVIDENCE,  A ;  Being  a  History  of  the  Ghurcl: 
of  the  Strangers,  of  Hew  York,  of  which  Charles.  F. 
Deems,  D.D.,  LLD.,  is  pastor.  Edited  by  Josephs. 
Taylor.    12mo.  cloth.  Illustrated.  256  pp.  $1.25  net. 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL  AS  AN  INSTITUTION,  What  Shall  We  Do 
With  The— By  George  Lansing  Taylor,  O.D.  Fourth 
edition.  Square  16mo,  cloth,  30  cents.  Paper,  20 
cents. 

THE  CENTRAL  METHODIST  says:  "This  is  the  clearest 
and  most  vigorous  protestation  of  the  whole  Sunday-School 
question  in  a  nutshell  we  have  seen.  It  is  a  work  that  ought 
to  be  in  the  hands  of  all  preachers,  since  its  practical  treatment 
of  the  difficulties  of  our  present  system,  and  the  proper  remedy 
to  be  applied  make  it  valuable  to  them." 

PREACHER'S  MAGAZINE,  THE.-Edited  by  Revs.  Mark  Guy 
Pearse  and  Arthur  E.  Gregory.  Published  Monthly, 
$1.50  per  year.  Single  copy,  15  cents.  No  free 
samples.  Bound  volumes,  net  $2.50.  Cloth  covers, 
for  binding  net,  35  cents. 

REV.  C.  H.  SPURGEON  says:  "This  unpretentious 
magazine  is  as  good  as  the  very  best  of  its  homiletical  com- 
peers. It  goes  straight  to  the  point,  making  no  big  pretences 
of  learning  and  eloquence,  it  goes  in  for  practical  suggestions, 
which  will  be  really  useful  to  men  who  are  laboring  to  win 
souls.  Although  we  are  by  this  time  able  to  run  alone,  and 
make  sermons  without  the  aid  of  homiletics,  yet  we  like  such 
magazines  as  these,  and  feel  helped  by  looking  them  through. 
Each  number  is  a  capital  return  for  the  money." 

SREAT  THOUGHTS  OF  THE  BIBLE.-By  Rev.  John  Reid.  l2ino. 
cloth,  318  pp.    $1.50. 

The  author  has  just  gone  far  enough  in  the  subject  not  to 
be  tiresome,  believing  that  compact  thought  is  the  want  of  the 
liour. 

THE  NEW  YORK  CHRISTIAN  ADVOCATE  says  :"Itisabook 
that  has  come  to  stay  because  there  are  elements  of  power  in  it. " 

THE  CHRISTIAN  AT  WORK  says:  " It  is  a  book  which  will 
not  only  add  to  the  intelligence  of  the  Christian,  but  invigorate 
and  strengthen  him  in  the  performance  of  all  Christian  duties," 


UNDESIGNED  GOINGIDENGES  IN  THE  WRITINGS  OF  BOTH 
THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENT.  An  Argument  for 
Their  Veracity.  By  Rev.  John  J.  Blunt,  with  an  Intro- 
duction by  Joseph  Sanderson,  D.D.,  LLD.  IZmo., 
cloth,  361  pp.    $1.50. 

JOSEPH  SANDERSON,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  in  the  introduction, 
says:  *' His  facts  and  allusions  are  gathered  with  discrimi- 
nating care,  his  arguments  are  massed  with  a  general's  eye ; 
his  thoughts  are  clothed  with  words  of  elegance  and  ease." 

PHILOSOPHY  AND  GHRISTIANITY.-A  Series  of  Lectures.  By 
George  S.  Morris,  Ph.D.,  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 
l2mo,  cloth,  315  pp.    $1.75. 

It  is  pithy,  pointed  and  practical,  and  its  pages  are  in- 
structive, guiding  and  entertaining,  and  the  circulation  of  the 
volume  is  bound  to  do  great  good. 

WEIGHTS  AND  WINGS.-By  Charles  F.  Deems,  D.D.,  LLD. 
Large  8vo.  348  pp.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  $2.00. 
Cloth,  gilt  edges,  $2.75.    Half  Russia,  gilt,  $3.75. 

SOUTHERN  CHRISTIAN  ADVOCATE  says:  "A  very  hand- 
some volume,  whose  contents  are  well  worthy  of  the  faultless 
dress  in  which  the  publisher  has  sent  them  forth.  No  profess- 
ing Christian  who  reads  it  thoughtfully  can  remain  in  doubt  as 
to  whether  his  Church  membership  is  a  help  or  a  hindrance  to 
his  pastor — a  '  weight  or  wing ' — as  he  prosecutes  his  laborious 
and  painfully  responsible  mission.  The  whole  tendency  of  the 
book  is  to  improve  the  relations  of  communicants  to  their 
pastors." 

SANCTIFIED  SPICE;  Or,  Pungent  Seasonings  from  the 
Pulpit,  by  Rev.  Madison  C.  Peters.— 12mo,  cloth,  216 
pp.    $1.50. 

A  strong,  sensible  and  stirring  work,  and  for  point, 
pith  and  illustration,  will  be  welcomed  by  thej public  as  well 
as  pastors  and  teachers. 


STUDY  IN  PEDAGOGY,  A-By  Bishop  John  H.  Vincent,  D.  D., 
LL  D.    12mo.  cloth,  73  pp.    60  cents. 

THE  NEW  YORK  SCHOOL  JOURNAL  says:  ''There  is  no 
danger  that  Bishop  Vincent  will  fail  to  gain  attention,  whether 
he  speaks  yerbally  or  through  the  printed  page.  He  is  one  of 
the  most  prominent  representatives  of  the  idea  that  the  whole 
people  should  he  educated,  instead  of  a  class  ;  and  he  empha- 
sizes the  fact  that  the  teacher  is  not  the  only  educator.  There- 
fore, in  his  hook  he  addresses  teachers,  clergymen,  parents,  and 
all  who  are  interested  in  the  uplifting  of  the  race.  The  pages 
are  few,  but  they  are  full  of  thought  and  practical  suggestion. 
Young  and  old  will  gain  inspiration  from  the  volume." 

PROBATION  AND  PUNISHMENT;  or,  The  Future  State  of  the 
Wicl(ed  and  the  Doctrine  of  a  Second  Probation.— By 
S.  M.  Vernon,  D.D.    12nio.  cloth,  300  pp.    $1.50. 

It  is  a  straightforward,  manly,  stirring,  heroic  book,  that 
keeps  the  reader  in  a  lively  state  of  curiosity  and  anxiety  to 
the  end.  Yet  it  is  very  simple  in  plan,  practical,  compre- 
hensive and  satisfying  in  its  style  and  conclusions. 

THE  NEW  YORK  INDEPENDENT  says  :  " Full  and  temper- 
ate discussion  of  the  subject ;  all  the  more  convincing  for  the 
author's  quiet  tone  and  disposition  to  be  fair." 

CHRISTIANITY  AND  POSITIVISM.-By  James  McGosh,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  Ex-President  of  Princeton  College.  12mo. 
cloth,  370  pp.    $1.75. 

THE  NEW  YORK  INDEPENDENT  says:  "  This  book  grapples 
directly  with  the  vital  questions.  Every  reader  must  admire 
its  fairness.  It  is  all  the  better  adopted  to  popular  reading 
from  having  been  written  to  be  delivered  to  an  audience. 
Indeed,  the  thinking  is  generally  so  clear,  and  the  style  so 
animated  and  luminous,  that  any  person  of  average  intelligence 
and  culture  may  understand  and  enjoy  the  discussion  ;  and  no 
such  person  who  has  begun  to  read  the  work  will  be  likely  to 
rest  satisfied  until  he  has  finished  it." 


JfATURE  aNO  the  BIBLE ;  &  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Morse 
Foundation  of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary.— By 
J.  W.  Dawson,  LL.  D.  12mo.  cloth,  258  pp.  Illustrated. 
$1.75. 

THE  INTERIOR  says:  "Professor  Dawson  discusses  his 
topic  from  the  various  standpoints  of  a  student  of  nature,  not 
from  the  single  standpoint  which  has  mostly  been  occupied  by 
theologians.  The  book  is  not  a  partisan  publication.  It  will 
be  found  by  those  opposed  to  be  perfectly  candid  and  fair,  ad- 
mitting difficulties  in  their  full  force,  and  not  seeking  to  evade, 
misinterpret,  or  exaggerate  any  fact  or  argument." 

CONCESSIONS  OF  "LIBERALISTS"  TO  ORTHOOOXY.-By 
Daniel  Dorchester,  D.  D.    12mo.  cloth,  344  pp.  $1.59. 

The  book  is  worthy  all  commendation  for  the  extensive 
research  shown  by  the  author  and  the  presentation  of  the  three 
cardinal  topics  :  The  Diety  of  Christ,  the  Atonement,  and  End- 
less Punishment. 

THE  WESTERN  CHRISTIAN  ADVOCATEsays  :  "Abookthat 
should  be  in  every  minister's  library.  The  doctor's  style  is 
singularly  pure  and  candid,  and  the  diction  and  dignity, 
scholarship  and  research  is  manifest  in  every  page." 

GOSPEL  OF  COMMON  SENSE,  TKE,  As  contained  in  the  Can- 
nonicai  Epistle  of  James— By  Gliarles  F.  Deems,  D.  D., 
LL.  0.    tZmo.  clotli,  320  pp.    $1.50. 

JOSEPH  COOK  says  :  "Dr.  Deems  eminent  common  sense 
never  appeared  more  profitable  than  in  his  fresh,  incisive  and 
most  timely  discussion  of  St.  James'  Epistle  as  the  Gospel  of 
Common  Sense.  The  book  is  at  once  popular  and  scholarly, 
broad  and  deep,  radical  and  conservative." 

THEODORE  L  CUYLER,  D.  D.,  says:  "The  style  of  the 
book  is  racy  and  most  readable.  It  ought  to  be  read  at  every 
fireside  in  the  land.  May  the  Holy  Spirit  attend  and  bless  the 
circulation  of  this  capital  volume." 


TOWARDS  THE  SUNSET : 
Teachings  After  Thirty  Years. 

BY 

A.  H.  K.  BOYD, 

Author  of  "  The  Recreations  of  a  Country  Parson," 
etc.,  etc. 


A  volume  of  sermons,  of  which  the  Sword  and 
Trowel  says,  "are  just  suited  to  the  occasion,"  The 
Bristol  Daily  Mail,  "  a  volume  of  rare  excellence," 
The  Spectator^  "  thev  are  kind  wise  and  practical," 
and  the  London  Daily  News,  "they  contain  a  sim- 
phcity  and  sincerity  of  feeling  which  silences  criticism 
and  wins  many  hearts  and  souls." 

The  following  are  the  titles  and  texts: 

I,  Not  Quite  Sure.— St.  Luke  xvii.,  5. 

a.  Be^in  at  Home.— Songs  of  Solomon  i.,  6. 

3.  Get  Wisdom.— Prov.  iv.,  5. 

4.  An  UnlamentedDeparture.-II.  Chron.xxi.,20. 

5.  Speech  and  Silence.— St.  Matt,  viii.,  4. 

6.  The  Spirits  of  Just  Men  Made  Perfect.— Heb. 

xii.,  23. 

7.  The  Questionings   of   Old   Friends.— Exodus 

vviii.,  7, 

8.  The  Invitation  to  Church.— Num.  x.,  29. 

9.  Is  there  Anything  ?-I.  Kings  xviii.,  43, 

10.  Fruits  Meet  for  Repentance.— St.  Matt,  iii.,  8. 

11.  The  Communion  of  Saints. — Ephes.  ii.,  19. 

12.  Joyful  in  the  House  of  Prayer.— Isa.  Ivi.,  7. 

13.  Judged  of  Necessity.— Acts  iv.,  13. 

i2mo,  cloth,  2^?>  pages,  $1.00. 


WILBUR  B.  KETCHAM,  Publisher, 

2  Cooper  Union,  New  York. 


£lijal),  the  Mat  or  God, 

By  MARK  GUY  PEARSE. 


The  books  of  this  author,  who  is  the  dis- 
tinguished senior  editor  of  The  Preacher's 
Magazine,  are  sought  after  with  great  avid- 
ity. None  of  his  productions  are  more  popu- 
lar than  "  Elijah."  With  rare  vigor  of  thought 
"the  Prophet  of  Fire  "  is  pictured  in  his  real 
and  rugged  character.  The  book  is  full  of 
teachings  most  striking  and  helpful.  In  terse 
puttings  he  presents  features  of  his  graphic 
history  to  view.  The  charms  of  the  work 
are  the  forceful  and  practical  truths  so  vividly 
written.  Every  reader  will  be  fortified  by 
its  wholesome  instructions  and  inspirations. 
It  is  worthy  of  a  prominent  place  in  every 
Christian  library  in  the  land.  It  is  intensely 
spiritual  and  will  fortify  every  devoted  seeker 
after    spiritual    quickening. 


Clotli  120  pp.    Price  50  cents. 

Wm  B.  KETGHilM,  Publisher, 

2  COOPER  UNION,  N.Y. 


SYNOPTICAL    LECTURES 

ON    THE 

Books  of  Holy  Scripture. 

BY 

DONALD    FRASER,    D.D 

The  plan  of  these  lectures  is  an  attempt  to  survey 
each  book  of  Scripture  so  as  to  apprehend  generally 
its  scope  and  contents,  as  one  may  view  a  City  from 
the  top  of  a  tower  in  order  to  gain  an  idea  of  its  ar- 
rangement and  its  salient  features,  that  he  may  there- 
after more  intelligently  traverse  it  in  detail. 

The  late  Rev.  C.  H.  Spurgeon  says:  "  Dr 
Fraser  has  observed,  like  many  others  of  us,  the  mis- 
chief that  has  resulted  from  cutting  the  Bible  into 
fragments  and  using  it  piecemeal.  In  these  volumes 
he  discourses  of  the  Bible  at  large,  indicates  the  scope 
of  each  book,  and  furnishes  a  brief  digest  of  its  con- 
tents. He  has  compressed  rigorously.  The  design 
was  in  itself  most  laudable,  and  it  has  been  welLcar- 
ried  out." 

The  Treasury  says:  "In  this  age  of  biblical 
Study  it  is  a  great  gratification  to  have  two  such  com- 
pendious volumes  within  the  reach  of  busy  workers, 
containing  a  digest  of  the  results  of  present-day 
scholarship  on  all  the  critical  problems  that  have  re- 
cently engaged  the  minds  and  pens  of  the  most  erudite 
students  of  God's  Word.  Each  book  of  the  Bible  is 
surveyed  as  to  its  scope  and  contents.  Its  arrange- 
ment and  salient  features  are  distinctly  traced,  and  a 
bird's-eye  view,  like  that  of  an  eagle  from  his  lofty 
eyrie,  is  given  of  the  whole  biblical  landscape  from 
Genesis  to  Revelation.  The  author  has  done  a  noble 
work,  not  only  for  professional  students  and  educated 
Christians,  but  for  all  who  desire  to  gain  a  clearer 
knowledge  of  the  Book  that  makes  wise  unto  salva- 
tion. These  are  grand  books  for  the  family  library." 
Published  in  2  vols.,  large  i2mo,  cloth,  About 
370  pp.;  357  pp.,  $4.00. 

TBILBDR  B.  KETCHAffl,  PttbMer, 

3  COOPER  UNION.  NEW  YORK. 


ASTDDYINPEDAGOGY. 

For    People   who    are   not    Professional 
Teachers. 

By  BISHOP  JOHN  H.  Y18CEHT,D.D.,  LL.D. 

Universal  attention,  will  certainly  be  given 
to  this  unique,  suggestive  and  eminently  help- 
ful production  from  the  pen  of  one  whose  gen- 
ius, wisdom  and  popularity  have  endeared  him 
among  the  educators  of  the  world.  It  will  find 
its  way,  by  dint  of  its  exquisite  merit,  into 
thousands  of  homes.  The  multitudes  who  find 
themselves  eager  to  excel  in  study  and  to  con- 
vey, by  natural  methods  instruction,  will  be 
charmed  by  this  book.  It  will  be  an  inspira- 
tion and  a  benediction  to  young  and  old.  Even 
teachers,  capable  and  efficient,  will  learn  much 
and  be  refreshed  by  its  wholesome  truths.  To 
put  this  book  into  the  hands,  and  its  lessons 
into  the  minds  of  the  yonthful  whose  ambition 
is  to  excell,  will  speed  the  day  of  their  antici- 
pated achievement.  It  is  prettily  bound  in 
somewhat  odd,  but  attractive  binding,  and  will, 
coming  in  the  market  at  this  season,  prove  an 
ine;cpensive,  but  suitable  gift  book  to  legions 
of  those  to  whom  its  instructions  will  be  per- 
i^nent  and  profitable. 

PRICE,  60  CTS.,  POST-PAID. 


WILBUR  B.  KETCHAM,  Publisher,^ 

2  Cooper  Union,   New  York.' 


Undesigned 

Coincidences 

IN    THE   WRITINGS    OF   BOTH    THE 

Old  xi  New  Testaments. 

AN  ARGUMENT  FOR  THEIR  VERACITY. 

By  Rey.  JOHN  J.  BLUNT, 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

JOSEPH    SANDERSON,  D.D.,  LL.D. 


The  present  volume  is  a  republication,  with  correc- 
tions and  many  additions  of  "  The  Veracity  of  the 
Books  of  Moses,"  "The  Veracity  of  the  Historical 
Scripturesof  the  Old  Testament,"  and  "The  Veracity 
of  the  Gospels  and  Acts."  Argued  from  undesigned 
coincidences  to  be  found  in  them  when  compared  in 
their  several  parts.  The  whole  presenting  a  con- 
tinued series  of  independent  arguments  for  the 
Veracity  of  the  Scriptures.  The  author  has  also  in 
the  volume  included  "The  Veracity  of  the  Prophet- 
ical Scriptures,"  thus  employing  one,  and  the  same 
touch-stone  of  truth  to  vertify  successively  the 
Books  of  Moses,  the  Historical  Scriptures  of  tne  Old 
Testament,  the  Prophetical  and  the  Gospels  and  Acts, 

i2mo,  Cloth,  361  pp.,  $1.50. 

WILBUR  B.  KETGNAM,  Publisher, 

2   COOPER    UNION.   N.  Y. 


